KIN 310 Exam 2 - Dr. Pettay KSU

scientific misconduct

fabrication, falsification, or plagiarism in proposing, performing, or reviewing research, or in reporting research results

fabrication

making up data or results and recording or reporting them

Falsification

manipulating research materials, equipment, or processes, or changing or omitting data or results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record

Plagiarism

the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results or words without giving appropriate credit

how to limit miscinduct

peer reviews and replication are the two tools used to reduce misconduct

What are the rights of a subject?

-Right to privacy or non-participation

-Right to remain anonymous

-Right to confidentiality

-Right ti experimenter responsibility

Why are there subject rights?

Because of the misconduct that occurred in the past. The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is the big reason. It began in 1932. For 40 years poor black sharecroppers were studied to examine the progression of this disease, though treatment had been available since 1947

Elements of informed consent

1. research description

2. Risks

3. Benefits

4. Alternatives

5. Confidentiality

6. Compensation

7. Contacts

8. Voluntary participation and withdrawal

Ethical research

research ethics govern the standards of misconduct for scientific researchers. It is important to adhere to ethical principles in order to protect the dignity, rights, and welfare of research participants

Example of unethical research

Tuskegee Syphilis experiment

The holocaust

The Stanford prison experiment

The hippocratic oath

a creed that preaches no harm

Ethic codes

-Nuremberg Code (1947)

-Declaration of Helsinki (2000)

-Belmont Report (1979)

-CIOMS (2002)

-U.S. Common Rule (1991)

The Holocaust research and the Nuremberg code

Nazi doctors conducted as many as 30 different types of experiments on concentration camp inmates. The studies did not have the consent of the inmates and they suffered indescribable pain, mutilation, permanent disability, and even death. The Nuremberg codes were created after this so this would never happen again

IRB

Institutional Review Board. Committed to providing a comprehensive and compliant research with human subjects program for researchers, students, and potential human subjects

Belmont Report Principles

1. Respect for persons

2. Beneficence

3. Justice

Respect for persons

individuals should be treated as autonomous agents. Persons with diminished autonomy are entitled to protection

Beneficence

Persons are treated in an ethical manner not only by respecting their decisions and protecting them from harm, but also making efforts to secure their well-being. Beneficence = acts of kindness that go beyond strict obligation

Justice

equals ought to be treated equally

1. to each person an equal share

2. to each person according to individual need

3. to each person according to individual effort

4. To each person according to societal contribution

5. To each person according to merit

10 principles in a research study

1. Voluntary consent of the participant is absolutely essential

2. the experiment must be designed to bring fourth results that will benefit society and that cannot be obtained in any other manner

3. human experimentation should be based in animal research results as well as knowledge of the natural course of events, disease and problems

4. All unnecessary mental or physical harm should be avoided

5. when there is reason to believe that death or disability injury may occur, no experiment should be conducted

6. The degree of risk should never exceed the humanitarian importance of the problem to be solved

7. All precaution should be taken to protect subjects from even remote possibilities of injury of death

8. Only qualified personnel should be allowed to conduct experiments

9. The subject must be able to withdraw from the experiment at any time

10. The principle investigator must be ready to terminate the experiment at any stage if it appears that injury or death will result

Clinical trials Benefits

-Play an active role in heath care

-gain access to new research treatments before they are widely available

-Obtain expert medical care at leading health care facilities during the trial

-Help others by contributing to medical research

Clinical Trials Risks

-There can be unpleasant, serious, or even life-threatening side effects to experimental treatment

-The experimental treatment may not be effective for the participant

-The protocol may require more of their time and attention than would a non-protocol treatment, including trips to the study site, more treatments, hospital satays or complex dosage requirements

Sampling

group of participants in a study selected as being representative of a defined population

population

large group to which the results of a study conducted on a sample of that group may be generalized

Generalizability

ability to generalize results to different populations with the same characteristics in different settings

inference

a conclusion reached on the basis of evidence and resoning

Statistic

value representing a characteristic of a population

sampling

the act, process, or technique of selecting a suitable sample

Issues related to sampling

-Larger sample, more representative, but also may be too costly

-Selection may be flawed (taking easy way out)

-what kind of participants do you need: age, gender, trained or untrained... can you get permission, can you find enough

probability sampling

likelihood of any one member of a population being selected in known

non-probability sampling

likelihood of selecting one member of population being selected is not known

Random sampling

procedure for selection of participants for a study that provides an equal chance of selection for all members of the population

Systemic sampling

procedure for selection of participants for a study in which every nth individual on a list is selected

Stratified random sampling

selection procedure for participants in a study that provides an equal chance of selection for all members of purposeful divisions of the population

Cluster sampling

useful when the population to be studied is infinite, a list of members of the population is nonexistent, and the geographic distribution of the population is widely scattered

Convenience sampling

group of participants for a study selected because of readiness of popportunity

quota sampling

a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known characteristics, traits, or focused phenomenon

snowballing sampling

with this approach, you initially contact a few potential respondents and then ask them whether they know of anybody with the same characteristics that you are looking for in your research

Periodicity

bias caused by particular characteristics arising in the sampling frame at regular units

Sampling error

inclusion of participants in a study that result in a sample not representative of the population due to chance error

Issues with sampling error and sampling size

-the larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error

-big is good, appropriate is better

effect size

calculated value that serves as a relative index of the meaningfulness of results

Variance

if the sample has a large variance, measured by the standard deviation, the results you find may not represent what actually happened in your research

validity

cause and effect relationships:

-requires a logical process

-good theoretical framework

-use of appropriate subjects

-application of correct type of design

-Use of correct statistical model

-Proper selection and control of independent variable

-appropriate selectoin and measurement of dependent variable

-Correct interpretation of results

Measurement

a reference sample or standard used for the quantitative comparison of properties

2 keys in measurement

conceptualization and operationalization

conceptualization

the process of taking a construct or concept and refining it by giving it a conceptual or theoretical definition

operationalization

the process of taking a conceptual definition and making it more precise by linking it to one or more specific, concrete indicators or operational definitions. Usually have numbers in them that reflect empirical or observable reality

4 steps of measurement

1. the object to be measured is identified and defined

2. The standard to which the measured object will be compared is identified and defined

3. A comparison of the object to the standard is made

4. A quantitative statement is made of the relationship of the object to the standard

test

a measurement technique used to assess individual differences in various content areas

tests can be used to...

-help researchers determine the results of a study (impact or treatment)

-Provide diagnostic and screening information (CAT scan)

-Help in the placement process

-Assist in selection (tryouts)

-Evaluation of outcomes (grade)

Norm

compare individual's performance to test performance of other individuals

criterion

only specific level of performance is defined, only important issue is meeting this standard

desriptive research

studies that capture important characteristics of the participants without experimenter manipulation

paradigm

a scholar's set of assumptions about the world (past and present) , definitions of theory and data, and possible questions that can be pursued

Paradigm steps to historical research

1. Define topic or problem you want to investigate

2. if possible, formulate hypothesis

3. Utilize a variety of sources to accumulate data

4. Evidence must be evaluated for both authenticity and accuracy

5. Data needs to be synthesized or integrated to provide a coherent body of knowledge

6. Interpret resutls

Limitations in historical research

-Availability of data may be limited and out of control of researcher

-data is primary observations of others

-Research requires a long and arduous task

-Rigor is weakened by lack of instrumentation validity and reliability

Epistemology

(the science of knowing) the branch of philosophy that deal with nature, origin and scope of knowledge.

meta-analysis

a procedure that allows for the examination of trends and patterns that may exit in many different groups in many different studies

steps of meta-analysis

1. Identify a problem

2. Perform a literature search by specified means

3. Review identified studies to determine inclusion or exclusion

4. Read and evaluate to identify and code important study characteristics

5. Calculate effect size

6. Apply appropriate statistical techniques

7. Report all these steps and outcomes in a review paper.

Limitations to meta-analysis

-inclusion of poorly conducted studies in equation

-cost of conducting the study

-Criteria being used for including primary sources are difficult to agree upon

-incomplete data sets

Survey

technique of description research that seeks to determine present practices or opinions of a specified population; can take the form of a questionnaire, interview,, or normative survey

sampling error

the error caused by observing a sample instead of a whole population. The sampling error is the difference between a sample statistic used to estimate a population parameter and the actual but unknown value of the parameter

What to avoid when doing a questionnaire

-ambiguity and vagueness can easily plague a questionnaire

-avoid prestige bias. Occurs when a statement, position, or response is associated with a prestigious person or group. Respondents may answer on the basis of their feelings toward the person of group rather than addressing the insure.

-leading questions. Can lead a respondent to choose one response over another by its wording

-asking questions that are beyond the respondents' capabilities. Asking something that frustrates respondents will produce poor-quality responses

-double-barreled questions. Make each question about one and only one topic. A double-barreled question consists of two or more questions joined together

Precision

consistency in findings, if repeat survey you will see the same thing - reliable

bias

biased if one opinion if emphasized at the exclusion of another - valid

normative survey

survey method that involves establishing norms for abilities, performances, beliefs and attitudes

longitudinal research

research in which the same participants are studied over a period of years

cross-sectional studies

research in which samples of participants from different age groups are selected in order to assess the effects of maturation

Methodological issues with developmental research

-unrepresentative scores

-unclear semantics

-lack of reliability

Correlational research

research that explores relationships among variables and that sometimes involves prediction of a criterion variable

epidemiological research

the branch of medicine that deals with the study of the causes, distribution, and control of disease in populations

cohort studies

work from postulated cause to effect. Begin with a group of people and observe them over a period of time

Case-control investigations

start with a group of people who already have characteristics (health problem) and compare them with people without characteristic

Leading health indicators

-PA

-Overweight and obesity

-tobacco use

-substance abuse

-responsible sexual behavior

-mental health

-injury and violence

-environmental quality

-immunization

-access to health care

case study

form of descriptive research in which a single case is studied in depth to reach a greater understanding about other similar cases

descriptive studies

builds detailed picture of phenomena but does not attempt to test or build theoretical modules

interpretive studies

major focus is to interpret the data to classify and conceptualize the information and build theory

Evaluate

primary purpose is to use the data to evaluate the merit of some practice, program, movement, or event

types of case studies

descriptive, interpretive, and evaluate

Qualitative sample

purposive, small

qualitative setting

natural, real world

qualitative data gathering

researcher is the instrument

qualitative design

flexible, may change

qualitative hypothesis

inductive

qualitative data analysis

descriptive, interpretive

quantitative sample

random, large

quantitative setting

laboratory

quantitative data gathering

objective instrumentation

quantitative design

determined in advance

quantitative hypothesis

deductive

quantitative data analysis

statistical methods

issues with qualitative research

needs to be credible, transferable, dependable, and confirmable

experiment

a test under controlled conditions that is made to demonstrate a known truth, examine the validity of a hypothesis, or determine the efficacy of something previously untried

Causality

-the cause must precede the effect in time

-the cause and effect must be correlated withe each other

-the correlation between the cause and effect cannot be explained by another variable

MAXICON concept

maximize true variance, minimize error variance

internal validity

the extent to which change in the dependent variables can be attributed to manipulation of the independent variables

external validity

extent to which the results of the study can be generalized to the sample population

threats to internal validity

history

maturation

testing

instrumentation

statistical regression

selection bias

experimental mortality

Selection-maturation interaction

history

events occurring during the experiment that are not part of the treatment

maturation

processes within the participants that operate as a result of time passing (agin, fatigue...)