political philosophy

3 circumstances for social division of work

1. increase in worker’s dexterity

2. saving the time lost switching from one type of task to another

3. invention of machinery to facilitate/shorten work for one man to do work of many

definition of physiocracy

nation’s wealth is from the value of land and agricultural development, generating grain surplus

physiocracy’s labor market

without restrictions and regulatory interventions which keep prices artificially high

physiocracy’s tax system

single tax on land rent

Adam smith’s ‘the wealth of nations’

argued that a nation’s true wealth is the "annual produce of its land and labor." BUT IS NOT PHYSIOCRACY: Smith refers to industrial and manufacturing labor, the combination of productive labor and the division of labor.

Adam smith’s root of wealth

productive industrial labor is the root of wealth, bc it has more division of labor than agriculture (factory vs farm)

Smith’s productive labor definition

labor that adds value to a material. profit is derived from productive labor

Smith’s unproductive labor definition

work that doesn’t add value to materials e.g. domestic servant, care work, service oriented labor incl. military and sovreign to smith

Smith’s examples of useful unproductive labor

doctors, lawyers, intellectuals

Smith’s examples of useless unproductive labor

singers, comedians, actors

smith's definition of value

manufacturing labor as source of increased output → labor generates added value

Marx’s variable capital

capital invested in labor (eg wages) which adds value to raw materials processed in industrial production

Marx’s invariable capital

capital invested in means of production eg raw materials, machinery, tools

Smith’s main cause of increased labor productivity

division of labor. proportional rise in productivity and effectively divided labor

Smith’s pin factory

a pin needs 18 operations before it is ready for market. if each task is done by different workers = an increase in productivity achieved through division of labor. Smith says 10 men can produce 48,000 pins in a single day (averaging 4,800 pins per person). working alone they would produce almost nothing

Smith’s need for cooperation

we only need to cooperate with others, not to be well-liked. we act out of own self interest - neither altruistic or egoistic. essential for normal standard of living

Hume on self interest

as a relationship: in all of our best self interests to engage with each other. collaborating through the exchange of goods

critiques on Smith

assumes well governed society.

division of labor + repetitive task + hyper productivity = worker’s depleted physical/intellectual abilities: no moral/mental exercise, dull ignorance, cannot participate in rational discourse, impairing physical capabilities

Smith on wealth gap

argues that wealthy > poor society, esp in quality of life difference between top and bottom. political governance linked to wealth

John Locke’s idea of ownership

ownership established by working on something

Hegel on labour

labor causes self-transformation which is a stage in development of self-consciousness

Marx on labour

labor becomes the cornerstone of individual and social emancipation

Durkheim on labour (esp social division of labour)

enables social integration. without this division, societies, which are no longer communities, would lack the ethical values ​​to hold them together

Marshall on labour

labor serves as the factor for inclusion within democratic citizenship

Ancient Greece on labour

not freedom - creative but freedom destroying form of suffering

Benvenuto Cellini example

goldsmith who lived for his work to realise his own capabilities (self realisation)

ERGON

work of the soul which is a finished, functional ‘work’

PONOS

burden to accomplish work, hardship, physical exhaustion

ERGON + PONOS PROBLEM

no one (only artisans) have full mastery over their own labor process / or ability to see it culminate in a "work" that they truly own.

Hesoid on golden age

defined by humans working without ponos/hardship. little effort required to live happily in peace. no happiness = ponos existing

Virgil’s ‘Georics’ on golden age

the absence of labor, and a need to cultivate the land. no happiness = ponos

Hesiod on labour

Work performed with joy, as form of play

ozio / otium

intentional, productive, reflective leisure - inverse of labour

Hephaestus

GREEK GOD: divine personification of labor: resilience through labor. physical flaws or rejection becoming creative mastery. Aphrodite marries him to free Hera, b/c he made throne to hold Hera captive.

Aristotle on otium

time away from labour and path to self-actualisation by dedicating self to knowledge; self as focal point of attention, looking into a mirror

Cicero on otium

no dignity, leisure of hedonists, socially useless and harmful to the self

Homer on Hephaestus

Hephaestus as first representation of total automation/machines replacing labor bc he created devices for his tasks.

Homer’s utopias from labor

1. Technological liberation from subordinate labor.

2. Freedom within the work performed by those who do not need to labor in order to live (aristocrats)

BOTH require autonomy/ the ability to stop working at any time/ not needing to work for survival , which is freedom.

Hesiod on ponos and ergon

two sides of the same coin - coexist in labor’s ambivalence

Hesiod on agriculture work

allows farmers a relationship with nature, a bridge between our actions in the world and the natural realm.

Hesiod context/biography

First intellectual to glorify moral value of labor. An aristocrat and landowner who, when not working the land, devoted his ozio (leisure time) to intellectualism. Works and Days is the product of intellectual labor centering on glorifying manual labor.

Hannah Arendt criticism of Hesiod

his ideal is a landowner concerning himself only w matters directly in his own sphere, which is idiocy (in greek sense, of selfishness). no human plurality → no political action → no freedom → no labor

Plato’s Phaedrus

souls’ paths before reincarnation into bodies:

1. philosophers, poets, music lovers - craft = art. techniques of use > techniques of production

2. kings

3. true statesmen

4. athletes

5. priests and poets

6. craftsmen

7. farmers

8. sophists demagogues

9. tyrants - no virtue.

Plato on justice

justice is the fulfillment of the specific role that each citizen is naturally inclined to perform. no social mobility, rigid division of labor

praxis

practical application of something, not just thinking about it

Plato’s radicalism

the first philosopher to say work esp manual labour is not pinnacle of human activity

Aristotle on Labour

akin to slavery - even wage labourers obey masters. their difference is how much independence they might have

Aristotle’s 3 viewpoints on slavery

context of slavery as:

• legal therefore legitimate

• strong dominating weak therefore legitimate

• unnatural therefore illegitimate

Aristotle’s justification of slavery

• “natural slavery“: some humans eg women/children have smaller measure of rationality

• in war-time: preferring slavery over battle

• for democracy: population cannot work and participate in civic assembly/ekklesia. slaves must work for them

Aristotle on democracy

• wage labourers and slaves excluded from all political life → must work for rest of population to be in democracy

• main participants in democracy are rich men - could afford not working

Ozio definition

contemplative leisure - highest activity humans can do

Aristotle on Ozio

disinterested knowledge - an activity producing nothing tangible, just theory, contemplation, knowledge

Judeo-Christian tradition on ozio

ozio is condemned, labour is legitimised

Cicero on ozio

• praises "leisure with dignity"

• hates undignified leisure of "seizing the moment" w fleeting, instantaneous pleasures

• hates constant busyness/’dignified’ lack of leisure → never have time for public good/politics

spectrum of work

complete idleness (total inactivity) | leisure with dignity (active attention to self) | unceasing activity (distraction from self)

leisure with dignity definition

dedicating self to public good eg intellectualism, including sacrificing own happiness/peace for common good, eg Seneca, who was excluded b/c of his intellectualism

Seneca on ozio

ozio is key to happiness (eudaimonia), serenity of spirit (euthymia) and self-mastery. happiness is learned in self formation

genesis and work

• artisanal labour as self realisation

• humans imitate god by shaping world in artisanship

• being cast out of Paradise is losing immortality and condemnation to work to survive