chapter #8Cognitive Psychology: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence

Comprehensive vocabulary flashcards covering mental representation, categorization, problem-solving strategies, reasoning, judgment heuristics, language acquisition theories, and intelligence models.

Cognition

The mental activities associated with thinking, reasoning, memory, and language.

Mental representations

Pieces of memory stored in long-term memory that represent actual objects, events, and people encountered in the environment, containing sensory properties such as visual appearance, smell, taste, and sound.

Concepts

Mental categories used to organize observed events, objects, and people around the meaning of the information they represent, allowing for more efficient knowledge application.

Superordinate category

The highest level of hierarchical categorization, containing concepts that are broad and general in description.

Basic category

The intermediate level of hierarchical categorization, which is applied most often to represent objects in the environment.

Subordinate category

The lowest level of hierarchical categorization, which is the most specific and detailed of all category levels.

Formal concepts

Categories defined by rigid, specific rules.

Natural concepts

Categories that do not follow formal, rigid rules, but are naturally classified as individuals experience and observe the environment.

Prototype

A typical, highly representative example of a category used as a benchmark for concept formation.

Exemplars

Specific, stored memories of actual past examples within a concept category that are compared against new items to judge category membership.

Algorithm

A methodical, step-by-step rule or procedure that always guarantees a correct solution to a problem if followed properly.

Heuristic

A simpler thinking strategy, such as trial and error, that allows for faster problem solving but may or may not lead to the correct solution.

Intuition

Believing that something is true independent of any reasoning process, relying on automatic thinking that frequently leads to incorrect solutions.

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem's solution that often occurs after contemplating the problem for a while and approaching it from a different angle.

Functional fixedness

An obstacle to problem solving characterized by the tendency to perceive objects only in their familiar, traditional roles.

Creativity

The ability to combine mental elements together in new, useful ways.

Mental set

The tendency to habitually rely on problem-solving strategies and methods that have worked successfully in the past.

Incubation period

A period during problem solving in which a person temporarily ceases thinking about the problem, allowing unproductive strategies to recede from memory.

Divergent thinking

The ability to generate many ideas quickly in response to a single prompt, reducing the likelihood of being blocked by problem-solving obstacles.

Deductive reasoning

A slow, deliberative reasoning process that moves from the general to the specific to draw conclusions.

Inductive reasoning

A reasoning process that moves from specific observations to general conclusions.

Dialectical reasoning

A form of reasoning assuming that opposing or contradictory statements both have the potential to be at least partially true, using logic and discourse to understand differing views.

Decision making

The cognitive process of choosing from among several alternatives.

Framing

The presentation of the same issue or information in different but reasonably equivalent ways, which can lead to different decisions and responses.

Loss aversion

The tendency to focus on what a certain decision could cost in potential gain.

Risk aversion

A decision maker's concern over losing what has already been gained.

Judgment

A type of problem solving in which a person estimates the probability or likelihood of an event.

Availability heuristic

A mental shortcut in which judgments about the likelihood or frequency of an event are influenced by how easily instances of it can be retrieved from memory.

Representativeness heuristic

A mental shortcut where quick probability judgments are made by comparing an item or person to a prototype, often ignoring base rates.

Base rate

The true, statistical probability of an event occurring in a given population.

Language acquisition device

Noam Chomsky's proposed biological makeup that provides innate knowledge of language structure, enabling children worldwide to acquire language rapidly and consistently.

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

Benjamin Whorf's hypothesis stating that language determines (or influences) people's thoughts and perceptions of the world.

General intelligence ($g$)

Charles Spearman's concept of a singular, overall factor of mental ability that accounts for the correlations among tests of different mental abilities.

Crystallized intelligence

Raymond Cattell's term for an individual's accumulation of knowledge, which continues to grow across the lifespan.

Fluid intelligence

Raymond Cattell's term for the speed and efficiency with which one learns new information and solves problems, which tends to decline across adulthood.

Theory of multiple intelligences

Howard Gardner's model proposing that humans possess nine distinct forms of intelligence rather than a single general ability.

Triarchic theory of intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory proposing that successful intelligence is composed of three cognitive abilities: analytical, practical, and creative.

Analytical intelligence

In Sternberg's triarchic theory, the ability to use logic to reason through problems, academic problem solving, and computation.

Practical intelligence

In Sternberg's triarchic theory, the ability to adapt to the everyday environment, characterized by street smarts and common sense.

Creative intelligence

In Sternberg's triarchic theory, the ability to use knowledge of the world in novel situations through imaginative and innovative problem solving.

Emotional intelligence

Daniel Goleman's construct referring to emotional expertise, confidence, and determination that enables success regardless of standard IQ.