General Chemistry: Solutions, States of Matter, Acids and Bases, Stoichiometry, Redox, and Gases

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering fundamental chemistry topics including solution behavior, intermolecular forces and states of matter, acid-base theories, stoichiometry and yields, oxidation-reduction processes, and gas laws.

Electrolyte

A material that dissolves in water to form a solution that conducts electricity, containing dissolved ions.

Nonelectrolyte

A material that dissolves in water to form a solution that does not conduct electricity, consisting of intact dissolved neutral molecules.

Dissociation

The physical process in which pre-existing ions in an ionic compound separate from each other when dissolved in a solvent.

Ionization

The chemical process in which new ions are created from neutral molecules upon dissolving in a solvent.

Precipitation Reaction

A reaction in which an insoluble solid (precipitate) forms upon mixing two aqueous solutions via double replacement or metathesis.

Spectator Ions

Ions in an ionic equation that do not participate directly in the chemical reaction and are eliminated to yield the net ionic equation.

Net Ionic Equation

A chemical equation showing only the reacting species, written after eliminating spectator ions from the complete ionic equation.

Intermolecular Forces

Attractive forces that exist among the particles that compose matter, controlling physical properties such as boiling and melting points, vapor pressures, and viscosities.

Thermal Energy

The energy associated with the constant random motion of the atoms and molecules composing matter, which increases with increasing temperature.

London Dispersion Forces

Intermolecular attractions between an instantaneous dipole and an induced dipole that are present in all atoms and molecules.

Polarizability

The ease with which the electron cloud of an atom or molecule can distort in response to an instantaneous dipole.

Dipole–Dipole Interactions

Attractive electrostatic forces between polar molecules in which the positive end of one permanent dipole is attracted to the negative end of a neighboring molecule.

Hydrogen Bond

An unusually strong type of dipole–dipole attraction that occurs when hydrogen is directly bonded to highly electronegative nitrogen ($N$), oxygen ($O$), or fluorine ($F$).

Ion–Dipole Forces

Attractive forces existing between an ion and the oppositely charged partial dipole of a polar molecule, enabling ionic substances to dissolve in polar solvents.

Surface Tension

The property of liquids resulting from a net inward force on surface molecules that minimizes surface area; quantitatively, the energy required to increase the surface area by a given amount.

Viscosity

The resistance of a liquid to flow, which increases with stronger intermolecular forces and decreases with higher temperatures.

Capillary Action

The ability of a liquid to flow against gravity up a narrow tube due to a combination of cohesive forces within the liquid and adhesive forces to the tube surface.

Cohesive Forces

The intermolecular attractive forces between like molecules within a liquid.

Adhesive Forces

The attractive forces between unlike molecules, such as between liquid molecules and the surface of a container.

Meniscus

The curving of a liquid surface in a thin tube caused by the competition between adhesive forces and cohesive forces.

Boiling Point

The temperature at which a liquid's vapor pressure equals the external pressure, allowing vapor bubbles to form throughout the liquid.

Normal Boiling Point

The temperature at which the vapor pressure of a liquid equals exactly $1\,\text{atm}$.

Sublimation

The endothermic phase transition in which surface molecules of a solid acquire sufficient energy to break free directly into the gas phase.

Deposition

The exothermic phase transition in which gas/vapor molecules are captured directly into a solid.

Heat of Fusion

The amount of energy required to change a solid at its melting point into a liquid.

Heat of Vaporization

The amount of energy required to change a liquid at its boiling point into a gas.

Heat of Sublimation

The amount of energy required to change a solid directly into a gas.

Arrhenius Acid

A substance that increases the concentration of hydronium/hydrogen ions ($H^+$) when dissolved in water.

Arrhenius Base

A substance that increases the concentration of hydroxide ions ($OH^-$) when dissolved in water.

Hydronium Ion

The complex ion ($H_3O^+$) formed when a highly reactive stripped proton ($H^+$) bonds with a water molecule.

Brønsted–Lowry Acid

A proton ($H^+$) donor in a chemical reaction.

Brønsted–Lowry Base

A proton ($H^+$) acceptor in a chemical reaction.

Amphoteric Substance

A species that can act as either an acid or a base because it possesses both a transferable $H^+$ and an atom with a lone electron pair.

Conjugate Acid–Base Pair

Two substances related to each other by the transfer of a single hydrogen ion ($H^+$); the species containing one more $H$ is always the acid.

Acid–Base Indicators

Substances, such as natural plant dyes (anthocyanins) or litmus, that change colors depending on whether they are in acidic or basic solutions.

Polyprotic Acid

An acid containing more than one ionizable proton ($H^+$) that loses them sequentially in stepwise ionization reactions.

Acid Ionization Constant ($K_a$)

The equilibrium constant for the ionization reaction of a weak acid in water, where a larger value signifies a stronger acid.

Base Ionization Constant ($K_b$)

The equilibrium constant for the reaction of a weak base with water to form $OH^-$ and its conjugate acid, defined as $K_b = \frac{[OH^-][H:\text{Base}^+]}{[:\text{Base}]}$.

Autoionization of Water

The process in which water molecules react with one another to produce hydronium and hydroxide ions according to $H_2O + H_2O \rightleftharpoons H_3O^+ + OH^-$.

Ion Product Constant of Water ($K_w$)

The product of the hydronium and hydroxide ion concentrations in water, equal to $[H_3O^+][OH^-] = 1.00 \times 10^{-14}$ at $25\,^{\circ}\text{C}$.

pH

A logarithmic measure of solution acidity defined as $\text{pH} = -\log[H_3O^+]$, where a values below $7$ are acidic and above $7$ are basic at $25\,^{\circ}\text{C}$.

pOH

A logarithmic measure of hydroxide concentration defined as $\text{pOH} = -\log[OH^-]$, related to pH at $25\,^{\circ}\text{C}$ by $\text{pH} + \text{pOH} = 14.00$.

Lewis Acid

An electron-pair acceptor; an electron-deficient species (electrophile) capable of forming a covalent bond.

Lewis Base

An electron-pair donor; an electron-rich species (nucleophile) possessing a lone pair of electrons available for bonding.

Chemistry

The study of the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter and the changes it undergoes.

Stoichiometry

The numerical relationship and quantitative study between chemical quantities of reactants and products in a balanced chemical reaction.

Limiting Reactant

The reactant that is completely consumed first in a chemical reaction, thereby limiting the maximum amount of product that can be formed.

Excess Reactant

Any reactant that remains unreacted when the limiting reactant is completely used up and the reaction stops.

Theoretical Yield

The maximum amount of product that would result if all of the limiting reactant reacted completely.

Actual Yield

The amount of product actually isolated or obtained from an experimental chemical reaction.

Percent Yield

The ratio of actual yield to theoretical yield multiplied by 100%, calculated as $\text{Percent Yield} = \frac{\text{Actual Yield}}{\text{Theoretical Yield}} \times 100\%$.

Solution

A homogeneous mixture of two or more substances consisting of a solute dissolved uniformly in a solvent.

Solute

The component of a solution that is dissolved and typically present in the smaller quantity.

Solvent

The component of a solution that dissolves the solute, identified as the component present in the greatest quantity.

Molarity ($M$)

A unit of solution concentration defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per one liter of solution ($\text{Molarity} = \frac{\text{moles of solute}}{\text{liters of solution}}$).

Oxidation–Reduction (Redox) Reactions

Reactions in which electrons are transferred between reactants, resulting in changes in the oxidation states of atoms.

Oxidation

The loss of electrons during a chemical process, manifested as an increase in the oxidation state of an atom.

Reduction

The gain of electrons during a chemical process, manifested as a decrease in the oxidation state of an atom.

Oxidizing Agent

The substance that causes oxidation in another species by gaining electrons, undergoing reduction in the process.

Reducing Agent

The substance that causes reduction in another species by losing electrons, undergoing oxidation in the process.

Oxidation State

A theoretical positive or negative integer assigned to an atom according to hierarchical rules to quantify its degree of electron gain or loss.

Combustion Reaction

A chemical reaction in which a substance reacts rapidly with $O_2$, forming oxygen-containing compounds (such as $CO_2$ and $H_2O$) and releasing heat.

Atmospheric Pressure

The pressure exerted by the column of air in Earth's atmosphere, which at sea level equals $1\,\text{atm}$ or $760\,\text{mmHg}$.

Barometer

An instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure by balancing the atmospheric force against a column of liquid mercury ($Hg$).

Manometer

A device used to measure experimental gas pressures, constructed as either an open-tube or closed-tube column containing liquid mercury.

Boyle's Law

A gas law stating that for a fixed amount of gas at constant temperature, volume is inversely proportional to pressure ($P_1V_1 = P_2V_2$).

Charles's Law

A gas law stating that for a fixed amount of gas at constant pressure, volume is directly proportional to absolute temperature in kelvins ($\frac{V_1}{T_1} = \frac{V_2}{T_2}$).

Avogadro's Law

A gas law stating that at constant temperature and pressure, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas present ($\frac{V_1}{n_1} = \frac{V_2}{n_2}$).

Ideal Gas

A hypothetical gas that obeys the ideal gas law ($PV = nRT$) whose particles experience no intermolecular attractions or repulsions and possess negligible particle volume compared to the container.

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)

The reference state defined as $0\,^{\circ}\text{C}$ ($273.15\,\text{K}$) and $1\,\text{atm}$, at which $1\,\text{mol}$ of an ideal gas occupies $22.414\,\text{L}$.

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

The principle stating that the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures that each constituent gas would exert alone ($P_{\text{total}} = P_1 + P_2 + P_3 + \dots$).

Mole Fraction ($X_i$)

The ratio of the number of moles of a specific component ($n_i$) to the total number of moles of all components ($n_T$) in a mixture ($X_i = \frac{n_i}{n_T}$).