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What is the lac operon?
A bacterial generegulation system that controls expression of genes needed to use lactose. It produces a polycistronic mRNA, meaning one mRNA encodes multiple proteins.
What are the promoter and operator in the lac operon?
Promoter: DNA site where RNA polymerase binds to begin transcription.
Operator: DNA regulatory site where the lac repressor can bind to block transcription.
What do the lac repressor and inducer do?
The repressor binds the operator and inhibits transcription. When lactose is available, some is converted into allolactose, which binds the repressor and reduces its ability to bind the operator, allowing transcription.
How do glucose and lactose availability affect lac operon transcription?
Lactose | Glucose | Expected transcription |
|---|---|---|
Absent | Present or absent | Very low/off |
Present | Present | Low |
Present | Absent | High |
When glucose is low, cAMP rises and binds CAP. The CAP–cAMP complex helps RNA polymerase bind and promotes transcription. Maximum expression occurs when lactose is present and glucose is low.
What is the difference between cis-acting regulatory elements and trans-acting factors?
Cis-acting elements: DNA sequences that regulate genes, such as promoters and enhancers.
Trans-acting factors: Diffusible molecules, usually proteins, that bind or interact with those elements, such as transcription factors.
What is a promoter, and what does it do?
A DNA region near a gene’s transcription start site where transcription machinery assembles. It helps determine where transcription begins and supports basal transcription.
What is an enhancer, and how does it differ from a promoter?
An enhancer is a cis-acting DNA sequence that increases transcription by binding regulatory proteins. It can act over long distances and may be upstream, downstream, or within a gene. Unlike a promoter, it does not independently initiate transcription.
How do transcription factors regulate eukaryotic gene expression?
Activators and repressors interact with regulatory DNA sequences and transcription machinery to increase or decrease transcription. Their effects depend on which factors are present and how they interact with the gene’s regulatory elements.
How do lipid-soluble hormones regulate gene expression?
They can cross the plasma membrane and bind intracellular receptors. The hormone–receptor complex can act as a transcription regulator by binding specific DNA response elements or interacting with other transcription factors.
How do water-soluble hormones regulate gene expression?
They bind receptors on the cell surface because they generally cannot cross the lipid bilayer freely. The receptors activate intracellular signaling pathways that modify transcription factors or other regulatory proteins.
What is the key difference between lipid-soluble and water-soluble hormone signaling?
Lipid-soluble hormones often act through intracellular receptors that directly regulate transcription. Water-soluble hormones generally act through cell-surface receptors and signaling cascades that indirectly change gene expression.
How can a hormone change gene expression without entering the cell?
It binds a cell-surface receptor, triggering a signaling cascade. The cascade can activate or inhibit transcription factors, changing transcription of specific genes.
What is mRNA editing?
A post-transcriptional process in which the nucleotide sequence of an RNA molecule is changed after transcription, potentially altering the protein produced.
How does mRNA editing generate ApoB-48?
In intestinal cells, an enzyme edits a cytidine (C) to uridine (U) in ApoB mRNA. This creates a premature stop codon, so translation produces the shorter protein ApoB-48 instead of full-length ApoB-100.
How can one gene produce ApoB-48 and ApoB-100?
The same ApoB gene is transcribed, but the mRNA is processed differently in different tissues. Intestinal mRNA editing creates a stop codon and produces ApoB-48; in the liver, the unedited mRNA produces ApoB-100.
Why is mRNA editing a form of gene regulation?
It changes the information translated from an mRNA, allowing cells to produce different protein products without changing the underlying DNA sequence.
What are iron-responsive elements (IREs) and iron regulatory proteins (IRPs)?
IREs are specific RNA sequences in certain mRNAs. IRPs are proteins that bind these sequences when cellular iron is low, regulating mRNA stability or translation
How does low intracellular iron affect transferrin receptor mRNA?
IRPs bind IREs in the 3′ UTR of transferrin receptor mRNA, protecting it from degradation. The mRNA becomes more stable, so more transferrin receptor can be produced to help the cell acquire iron.
How does low intracellular iron affect ferritin production?
IRPs bind an IRE in the 5′ UTR of ferritin mRNA and inhibit translation. This reduces ferritin production, limiting storage of iron when iron is scarce.
Compare the effects of low and high iron on transferrin receptor and ferritin.
Intracellular iron | Transferrin receptor | Ferritin |
|---|---|---|
Low | Increased mRNA stability → more receptor | Translation inhibited → less ferritin |
High | Less protection of mRNA → less receptor | Translation proceeds → more ferritin |
Memory tip: Low iron helps the cell bring iron in and limits its storage.
What is epigenetics?
Changes in gene expression that occur without changing the underlying DNA sequence. Epigenetic mechanisms can help maintain patterns of gene activity through cell divisions.
How does histone acetylation affect gene transcription?
Histone acetyltransferases (HATs) add acetyl groups to histone tails, reducing positive charge on lysine residues and generally loosening histone–DNA interactions. This makes chromatin more accessible and often increases transcription.
How does histone deacetylation affect gene transcription?
Histone deacetylases (HDACs) remove acetyl groups. This generally strengthens histone–DNA interactions, makes chromatin less accessible, and often decreases transcription.
How can reversible histone modification regulate gene expression?
Cells can add or remove histone acetyl groups to shift chromatin between more accessible and less accessible states. These changes help control whether transcription machinery can access a gene.
What is DNA methylation, and how does it commonly affect gene expression?
DNA methylation is the addition of a methyl group to DNA, commonly to cytosine in CpG sites. Methylation in gene promoter regions is often associated with reduced transcription.
How can DNA methylation silence a gene?
Methylation can interfere with transcription-factor binding and recruit proteins that promote repressive chromatin. These changes make the gene less accessible for transcription.
How can abnormal DNA methylation contribute to cancer?
Excessive methylation of a tumor-suppressor gene’s promoter can silence that gene. If the gene normally limits cell division or helps protect genomic integrity, its loss can contribute to cancer development.
How does DNA methylation differ from histone acetylation?
DNA methylation modifies DNA itself and is often associated with transcriptional repression at promoters. Histone acetylation modifies histone proteins and generally makes chromatin more accessible, often promoting transcription.
What are 5-azacytidine and decitabine?
Cytosine analogs that inhibit DNA methylation. They can reduce methylation-dependent gene silencing and are used in certain clinical settings.
How do these cytosine analogs inhibit DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs)?
After incorporation into nucleic acids, they interact with DNMT enzymes. DNMTs can become trapped in a covalent complex with the modified nucleic acid, inhibiting enzyme function and reducing DNA methylation.
How do 5-azacytidine and decitabine differ in their incorporation into nucleic acids?
5-azacytidine can be incorporated into both RNA and DNA after metabolic conversion, whereas decitabine is incorporated into DNA. Their incorporation enables inhibition or trapping of DNMTs.
Why might inhibiting DNMTs help restore expression of a silenced gene?
Reduced DNA methylation can allow a previously methylation-silenced promoter to become more accessible to transcription machinery. Reactivation depends on the gene and the other regulatory changes present in the cell.
What genetic change causes Fragile X syndrome?
Expansion of CGG trinucleotide repeats in the FMR1 gene. A full mutation typically involves a large expansion that is associated with abnormal methylation and gene silencing.
How does CGG-repeat expansion lead to FMR1 gene silencing?
The expanded repeat is associated with hypermethylation of the FMR1 promoter region and changes in chromatin that repress transcription. As a result, FMR1 expression is greatly reduced or absent.
What is FMRP, and why does its loss matter?
FMRP is the protein encoded by FMR1. It helps regulate the translation of particular mRNAs, especially in neurons. Loss of FMRP disrupts normal neuronal function and contributes to the features of Fragile X syndrome.
Connect the steps from CGG-repeat expansion to Fragile X syndrome.
CGG-repeat expansion → abnormal DNA methylation and repressive chromatin → FMR1 transcriptional silencing → reduced or absent FMRP → disrupted neuronal regulation and Fragile X syndrome.