Anatomy Practical 2

Where does gas exchange occur in the respiratory tract?

alvoeli

which muscles would contract during forced expiration?

internal intercostals

When the diaphragm contracts and moves inferiorly, what is happening?

inspiration

What ion is transported from the plasma into erythrocytes to balance the movement of bicarbonate ion out of the erythrocytes?

chloride ion

What TWO muscles help carry out inspiration?

diaphragm and external intercostals

what are the processes of respiration?

• gas exchange from air to blood

• gas exchange from blood to tissues

• breathing

• transport of gases to tissues via the blood

what measure would be reduced in a patient with chronic bronchitis?

forced expiratory volume

tidal volume

normal breathing

Some respiratory infections can cause epiglottitis (inflammation of the epiglottis). Why could this be life-threatening?

This could be life-threatening because the epiglottis controls where food and air goes to the stomach/lungs and if swollen it can block the airway, leading to suffocation. 

Pneumonia causes fluid to accumulate in the alveoli. How would pneumonia affect the amount of oxygen in the blood?

It would drastically decrease the amount of oxygen within the blood due to a slowdown in oxygen transport to vital organs, ventilation problems in the air sacs, and lower the oxygen solubility in fluids in comparison to carbon dioxide. 

Carbonic acid is considered a weak acid. In terms of blood physiology, what does that mean?

It is considered a weak acid because it doesn't break down easily into its components in water which causes it to be a crucial buffer to maintain stabilization within blood pH further preventing falls and rises in pH and it can also easily convert back into water and or carbon dioxide with the help of carbonic anhydrase. 

ciliated epithelium

collects debris and pushes it back up to the trachea

blood pressure

force exerted by circulating blood against the internal walls of the body's blood vessels

heart murmur

• adds a whooshing sound due to the fluid friction of chaotic blood movement

• stiff/narrow valve

• valve doesn’t close completely

what are the stages of hypertension?

• Stage 1: 130-139 mmHg (SYS) or < 80 mmHg (DIA)

• Stage 2: 140 or higher (SYS) or 80-89 (DIA)

• Hypertensive Crisis: >180 (SYS) and/or >120 (DIA)

how do you auscultate heart sounds?

place stethoscope at the standard valve areas (brachial, antebrachial, etc.)

pulomnary ventilation

pushes air and out of lungs (breathing)

external respiration

involves movement of gasses between alveoli and the blood

internal respiration

gas exchange between systemic blood vessels and tissues

transport of respiratory gases

oxygen and carbon dioxide are moved through the bloodstream between the lungs and the tissue cells of the body.

upper respiratory division

• nasal cavities

• paranasal sinuses

• nose

• pharynx

• larynx (sometimes)

lower respiratory division

• trachea

• terminal bronchi

• respiratory bronchi

• primary bronchioles

• secondary bronchioles

• tertiary bronchioles

• lungs

• alveoli

nasal cavity

make the skull lighter

warming, humidifying, and filtering incoming air, as well as hosting the sensory receptors responsible for olfaction (the sense of smell).

pharynx

muscular passage → connects nasal cavity to larynx

what are the types of pharynx?

1. nasopharynx→ superior and behind nasal cavity

2. oropharynx→ middle region behind mouth

3. laryngopharynx→ inferior and attached to larynx

larynx

• voice box

• routes air and food to proper channels

• consists of 8 rigid hyaline cartilages and a spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage

trachea

• 4-in long tube that connects larynx w/bronchi (still conditioning air)

• walls are reinforced w/C-shaped hyaline cartilage

• lined w/pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium → create a current for fluid to go down to stomach away from lungs

bronchi

conduct air from the trachea directly into the lungs.

alveoli

site of gas exchange

rich in blood supply → capillaries form sheet over them

type 1: epi wall

type 2: secrete surfactant

lungs

• gas exchange between atmosphere and bloodstream

• R lung is larger, has 3 lobes

• L lung is smaller because it’s near heart, has 2 lobes

inspiration

• diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract → increased thoracic cavity size → decrease in lung pressure → air enters lungs

expiration

lung recoils; muscles relax → internal intercostals contract → decreases thoracic cavity size → increase in lung pressure → air is pushed out of the lungs

obstructive disease

• Difficulty exhaling air completely due to bronchoconstriction.

• normal vital capacity

• high resistance

• ex: asthma, chronic bronchitis

restrictive disease

• Difficulty inhaling fully because the lungs cannot expand.

• decrease in vital capacity

• stiff tissue due to scar tissue

• ex: polio, tuberculosis

normal breath sounds

• Bronchial: Loud, high-pitched, harsh sounds heard directly over the trachea. Expiration lasts longer than inspiration, with a silent gap between them.

  • Pathology if misplaced: If heard out in the peripheral lung fields, it indicates lung consolidation (e.g., pneumonia), where fluid-filled tissue conducts sound better than air-filled tissue.

• Bronchovesicular: Medium pitch and intensity heard over the mainstem bronchi (1st and 2nd intercostal spaces anteriorly, and between the scapulae posteriorly). Inspiration and expiration are equal in length.

• Vesicular: Soft, low-pitched, breezy sounds heard over the peripheral lung fields (the bulk of the lung tissue). Inspiration is much longer than expiration (roughly a 3:1 ratio).

abnormal breath sounds and pathologies

• Fluid = crackles

• Asthma = wheeze

• Mucus = rhonchi

• Obstruction = stridor

• Inflammation = pleural friction rub

buffer system

keeps blood pH balanced

Too much acid? → Buffer removes H⁺ Too little acid? → Buffer releases H⁺

acid-base balance in blood

• Acid = H⁺

• Base = HCO₃⁻

• CO₂ acts like an acid

• Normal blood pH = 7.35-7.45

• Lungs control CO₂

• Kidneys control H⁺ and HCO₃⁻

• Buffers act first to keep blood pH stable

what’s the role of Co2 in blood pH homeostasis?

• ↑ CO₂ = ↓ pH (more acidic)

• ↓ CO₂ = ↑ pH (more basic)

lungs regulate blood pH by controlling CO2 levels:

• Fast breathing → ↓ CO₂ → ↑ pH

• Slow breathing → ↑ CO₂ → ↓ pH

chloride shift

• exchange of bicarbonate ions (HCO₃⁻) and chloride ions (Cl⁻) across the red blood cell membrane to maintain electrical neutrality

• It allows CO₂ transport as bicarbonate and helps maintain acid-base balance (blood pH)

urinary system function

1. regulate aspects of homeostasis:

• Water balance

• Acid-base balance in the blood

• Plasma ionic composition (electrolytes such as:

calcium, sodium, potassium)

• Blood pressure and blood volume

• Stimulates blood cell production

• Activates vitamin D3 (converts it to calcitriol, the

active form)

2. eliminate waste products: Nitrogenous wastes, toxins, drugs

kidneys

Produce urine as a result of carrying out the major functions of the urinary system

ureters

transport urine from kidneys to bladder

urethra

excrete urine from bladder to out of body

bladder

• temporary storage reservoir for urine

• three openings

• smooth, collapsible muscular tissue

renal arteries

deliver blood to kidneys for processing

renal veins

carry blood away from kidneys

what is the difference between urine and filtrate?

• filtrate is everything that is small filtered out of blood

• remaining filtrate from reabsorption and secretion is urine

transitional epithelium

cuboidal when empty and simple squamous when full

glycosuria

excess glucose in urine

common cause: diabetes mellitus

proteinuria

excess protein in urine

common cause: kidney damage, glomerulonephritis

pyuria

excess WBCs/pus in urine

common cause: urinary tract infection

hematuria

RBCs in urine

common cause: kidney stones, infection, trauma, glomerulonephritis

hemoglobinuria

hemoglobin in urine

common cause: destruction of RBCs

bilirubinuria

bilirubin in urine

common cause: liver disease, bile duct obstruction

nitrituria

nitrites in urine

common cause: bacterial urinary tract infection

ketonuria

ketones in urine

common cause: diabetes mellitus, starvation, low-carb diets

pyelonephritis

WBC clasts in urine

common cause: kidney infection

diabetes mellitus

• High blood glucose due to lack of insulin or insulin resistance

• Causes glycosuria and sometimes ketonuria

pregnancy

• Increased blood volume and kidney filtration

• May cause small amounts of glucose or protein in urine

preeclampsia

• Pregnancy complication with high blood pressure and proteinuria

• Usually occurs after 20 weeks of pregnancy

Glomerulonephritis

• Inflammation of the glomeruli

• Damaged filters allow blood and protein into urine

Common findings:

• Proteinuria

• Hematuria

hypertension

• High blood pressure

• Can damage kidney blood vessels over time

May lead to:

• Proteinuria

• Chronic kidney disease

urinary tract infection

common findings: pyuria, nitrituria

bleeding in urinary tract

common finding: hematuria

transfusion reaction

common finding: hemoglobinuria

hemolytic anemia

common finding: hemoglobinuria

liver disease

common finding: bilirubinuria