Anatomy, Histology, and Cytology Review Flashcards

Vocabulary practice flashcards generated from lecture notes on anatomy, tissue histology, and basic cell biology.

Gross anatomy

The subdiscipline of anatomy concerned with the study of body structures visible to the naked eye.

Surface anatomy

The study of the external structure and surface markings of the human body.

Radiological anatomy

The study of internal body structures utilizing X-rays and other noninvasive medical imaging techniques.

Systemic anatomy

The study of anatomy focused on one complete organ system at a time.

Regional anatomy

The study of anatomical structure focusing on multiple overlapping organ systems within a specific body region.

Histology

The microscopic study of biological tissues and how they are organized into functional organs.

Histopathology

The microscopic examination and analysis of diseased tissue samples.

Cytology

The study of the structure, composition, and function of individual cells.

Ultrastructure

The detailed architecture of cellular components and biological structures at the molecular level.

Inspection

A clinical method of examining the human body simply by looking at its appearance.

Palpation

A method of clinical examination involving feeling a body structure with the hands.

Auscultation

The process of listening to internal sounds produced by the body, such as cardiac or respiratory sounds.

Percussion

An examination technique in which the clinician taps on a body surface to feel for abnormal resistance and listen to the emitted sounds.

Digital subtraction angiography (DSA)

An imaging technique where X-ray photos taken before and after contrast medium injection are processed by computer to subtract background structures and visualize blood vessels clearly.

Situs solitus

The normal standard anatomical arrangement of internal organs (viscera) within the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Situs inversus

A congenital developmental abnormality affecting about $1\text{ in }8{,}000$ people in which the thoracic and abdominal organs are completely reversed right-to-left.

Dextrocardia

A developmental abnormality characterized by a selective right-to-left positional reversal of the heart.

Situs perversus

An anatomical variation where a single organ occupies an atypical position rather than a complete right-left reversal.

Anatomical position

The standard reference position where a person stands upright with feet flat on the floor, arms at sides, and palms and face directed forward.

Anatomical planes

Hypothetical flat cuts or sections used to slice through body structures, categorized into sagittal, frontal, and transverse planes.

Sagittal plane

A vertical plane passing through the body or an organ that divides it into right and left portions.

Frontal (coronal) plane

A vertical plane that divides the body or organ into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.

Transverse (axial, horizontal) plane

A horizontal plane perpendicular to the long axis that divides the body or organ into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

Abdominopelvic quadrants

The four clinical subdivisions of the abdomen formed by two perpendicular lines intersecting at the umbilicus: RUQ, LUQ, RLQ, and LLQ.

Ipsilateral

A directional term meaning located on or affecting the same side of the body.

Contralateral

A directional term meaning located on or affecting the opposite side of the body.

Axial region

The major body division consisting of the head, neck (cervical region), and trunk.

Appendicular region

The major body division consisting of the upper and lower limbs.

Tissue

An aggregation of similar cells and extracellular cell products that forms a distinct region of an organ and performs specialized functions.

Epithelium

A basic tissue type consisting of sheets of closely adhering cells that line body cavities, cover organs, or form glands.

Stratified squamous epithelium

The most common epithelial tissue class, comprising multiple layers where surface cells slough off (desquamate) to protect underlying tissue against abrasion.

Urothelium (Transitional epithelium)

A specialized stratified epithelium restricted to the urinary tract that features protective umbrella cells capable of stretching and resisting acidic urine.

Fibroblasts

Connective tissue cells responsible for synthesizing the fibers and ground substance that form the extracellular matrix.

Macrophages

Large phagocytic connective tissue cells derived from monocytes that engulf debris and pathogens and present antigens to activate immune responses.

Mast cells

Connective tissue cells found alongside blood vessels that release heparin to inhibit blood clotting and histamine to induce vasodilatation.

Hyaline cartilage

A flexible supportive cartilage characterized by a glassy matrix containing fine collagen fibers, located on articular surfaces, respiratory tracts, and fetal bone models.

Osteon

The structural unit of compact bone, consisting of a central (haversian) canal containing vessels and nerves surrounded by concentric rings of matrix called lamellae.

Canaliculi

Microscopic fluid-filled canals connecting adjacent lacunae in bone matrix, allowing osteocytes to transfer nutrients and communicate via cellular processes.

Intercalated discs

Complex end-to-end junctions containing gap junctions that join adjacent cardiac muscle cells (cardiomyocytes), facilitating synchronized contraction.

Mucous membrane (Mucosa)

A tissue membrane comprising an epithelium, lamina propria, and sometimes smooth muscle that lines internal passages open to the external environment.

Serous membrane (Serosa)

A tissue membrane composed of simple squamous mesothelium over loose connective tissue that lines major sealed body cavities and secretes lubricating serous fluid.

Atrophy

The reduction in tissue size or mass resulting from a decrease in cell size or cell count due to aging, disease, or lack of organ use.

Necrosis

Pathological, unprogrammed tissue death resulting from irreversible cellular damage caused by trauma, infection, or loss of blood supply.

Infarction

Sudden localized necrosis of tissue resulting from an abrupt loss or blockage of blood supply.

Apoptosis

Orderly, programmed cell death used to remove redundant, damaged, or aged cells without triggering inflammation.

Cell theory

The fundamental paradigm of biology stating that all living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic functional unit of life, and all cells arise from preexisting cells.

Glycocalyx

A carbohydrate-rich surface coating on cells composed of glycolipids and glycoproteins that functions in protection, cell identification, and blood type determination.

Phospholipid

The major lipid constituent ($75\%$) of plasma membranes, structured with a glycerol backbone, two hydrophobic fatty acid tails, and a hydrophilic phosphate head.

Sodium-potassium (\text{Na}^+-\text{K}^+) pump

An active transport carrier protein that hydrolyzes ATP to pump $3\,\text{Na}^+$ out of the cell in exchange for bringing $2\,\text{K}^+$ into the cytoplasm.

Vesicular transport

An energy-requiring transport mechanism that imports or exports bulk material across the cell membrane within membrane-bound bubbles termed vesicles.

Pinocytosis

A non-selective form of endocytosis ('cell drinking') in which small vesicles form to internalize droplets of extracellular fluid.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis

A highly specific endocytic pathway where target molecules bind membrane receptor proteins before invagination into a clathrin-coated vesicle.

Phagocytosis

A form of endocytosis ('cell eating') used by specialized immune cells to extend pseudopods around microbes or cellular debris and internalize them.

Microvilli

Non-motile plasma membrane projections that serve to increase surface area for absorption, reaching densities of up to $3{,}000$ per cell in epithelial lining of the small intestine.

Cilia

Hairlike processes $7\text{ to }10\,\mu\text{m}$ long containing a microtubule core (axoneme); motile cilia beat synchronously to transport fluids or mucus across tissue surfaces.

Dynein

A molecular motor protein that uses ATP hydrolysis to produce the bending force required for ciliary and flagellar motility.

Kartagener syndrome

A hereditary disorder caused by absent or dysfunctional dynein in cilia and flagella, leading to male infertility due to non-motile sperm and chronic respiratory congestion.

Tight junctions

Interlocking protein lines encircling adjacent epithelial cells near their apical borders to create a tight seal that prevents paracellular leakage.

Desmosomes

Mechanical cell junctions formed by protein plaques and intermediate filaments that hold adjacent cells tightly together at discrete spot-like patches.

Pemphigus vulgaris

An autoimmune disorder in which autoantibodies attack desmosomal proteins in the skin and oral mucosa, causing extensive blistering and fluid loss.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A continuous system of interconnected membranous tubules and cisterns; rough ER possesses surface ribosomes for protein synthesis, while smooth ER lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids while detoxifying drugs.

Golgi complex

An organelle consisting of $4\text{ to }6$ stacked flattened membranous sacs that receives, modifies, sorts, and packages ER products into vesicles.

Lysosomes

Membrane-bound organelles containing over $50$ hydrolytic digestive enzymes that break down worn-out organelles (autophagy), engulfed pathogens, and intracellular structures during apoptosis.

Peroxisomes

Organelles containing oxidative enzymes that oxidize organic substrates, generate and break down hydrogen peroxide via catalase, and detoxify chemicals in the liver and kidneys.

Mitosis

The nuclear division mechanism in somatic cells that produces two genetically identical daughter cells through prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.

Pluripotent stem cells

Embryonic stem cells present in early embryos (up to $150$ cells) capable of differentiating into any cell type of the adult body.