Cognitive Psychology - 1.2 - Cognitive Development

Biological Milestones

developmental events driven by genes / biological factors - controlled by the body's internal clock and hormones

Happen at nearly same age for all healthy children

Cannot be taught or rushed by extra training

Ex. puberty, losing baby teeth, growing taller

Cognition

the set of all mental processes your brain uses to take in, store, process, and use information

Thinking, Attention, Memory, Perception, Language, Reasoning etc.

Cognitive Development

development of thinking and reasoning abilities

Developmental Milestones

normative events marking stages in development - represent typical markers of progress in physical, intellectual, emotional, and social development.

New skills learned through practice, play and growth - happen in wider age range for each child, and highly affected by environment (faster growth with support practice and safety)

Ex. Rolling over, First words, Learning to walk

Fluid Intelligence

The mental ability to think logically, reason abstractly, and solve new problems in unfamiliar situations without relying on past learning or stored knowledge

while crystalized intelligence would involve recalling facts and information from a stored based of knowledge

Genotype

genetic makeup of an organism

Learning

the improvement of an organism's response to the environment through the acquisition of new information

Memory

the study of the capacity and fragility of human memory, focusing on acquisition, storage, and retrieval

Neuroplasticity

the brain's capacity to reorganize and adapt

Normative Approach

study of age-related averages for developmental milestones

"What is normal development?"

Object Permanence

understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight

Psychosocial Development

development related to:

emotions, personality, social relationships

Continuous Development

Views development as a cumulative process, gradual improvement of skills - Ex. Slowly getting taller

Discontinuous Development

Believe development takes place in unique stages - specific times or ages. Ex. More sudden changes like an infant developing object permanence, think "stepping stones"

What is Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development?

- Our cognitive abilities develop through specific stages, which exemplifies the "discontinuity" approach to development.

- As we progress to a new stage, there is a distinct shift in thinking and reasoning

- Children develop schemata to help them understand the world

- Thought development unfolds in a series of stages approximately associated w/ age ranges

Schema / Schemata

Mental models and concepts used to help us understand the world

helps us categorize and interpret information

Ex. "All animals with fours legs and a tail = dog" ... or does it?

Assimilation

- Fit new data into what you already know

- Keep old beliefs or mental boxes the same

- Ex: A child sees a fluffy, four-legged cat and calls it a "dog" because it fits their existing dog schema

Accommodation

- Changes old rules or builds a new mental box

- Happens when new data breaks your old way of thinking

- Ex: The parent says it is a cat, so the child updates their thoughts and creates a brand-new schema for "cat"

The process of Assimilation & Accommodation

- When children learn new information, they adjust their Schemata through Assimilation and Accommodation

- First, children Assimilate new information or experiences, taking in information that is comparable to what they already know

- Second, they change their schemata, if necessary, to accommodate new information

Theory of Mind / Cognitive Empathy

- Ability to understand other people's feelings, thoughts and perceptions - as well as their own - and also how to predict behavior

- Refers to the ability to take the perspective of others and feel concern for others

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

- Sensorimotor (0-2)

- Preoperational (2-6)

- Concrete Operational (7-11)

- Formal Operational (12+)

Sensorimotor stage

- 0-2

- Children learn about world using their senses and motor behavior(placing objects in mouth, shake and bang things)

- develop Object Permanence, begin to show Stranger Anxiety

Preoperational stage

- (2-6)

- Marked by Egocentrism

- Children can use symbols to represent words, images and ideas (why kids engage in pretend play)

- Children begin to use language, but cannot understand adult logic or mentally manipulate information

- Logic based on own personal knowledge of the world, rather than conventional knowledge

- Kids at this stage cannot perform mental operations because they have not developed an understanding of Conservation (ex. Pouring the same amount of water into different shaped cups)

- Struggle understanding Reversibility

- Centration

Concrete Operational stage

- (7-11)

- Decentration

- Kids can think logically about real (concrete) events

- Have firm grasp on the use of numbers and start to employ memory strategies

- Can perform math operations and understand transformations (ex. Addition opposite of subtraction)

- Master concept of conservation

- Understand principle of reversibility (objects can be changed and returned back to their original form)

Formal Operational stage

- (12+ or 11-20)

- Children can now think logical about concrete events AND abstract ideas/hypothetical situations and questions

- Can use abstract thinking to problem solve

- In adolescence, a renewed egocentrism occurs. (15yo thinking everyone is looking at their very small pimple)

Stranger Anxiety

fear response

results when children are unable to assimilate strangers into existing schema / cant predict what their experience with a stranger will be like

Centration

The tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem, neglecting other important aspects.

Decentration

The ability to focus on multiple aspects of a situation at the same time, moving away from a single-minded or egocentric focus

Egocentrism

cognitive inability to see a situation or the world from another person's point of view

Reversibility

The mental ability to undo an action or return an object to its original state

Postformal stage

- Not initially in Piaget's theory

- Decisions are made based on situations and circumstances, logic is integrated WITH emotions, development of principles that depend on CONTEXT

- One way we can see the difference between an adult in postformal thought and an adolescent in formal operational thought is in terms of how they handle emotionally charged issues

- Adults can recognize, for example, that what seems to be an ideal solution to a problem at work involving a disagreement with a colleague may not be the best solution in a disagreement with a significant other.

What are the three Developmental Domains?

Physical, Cognitive, Psychosocial

Aspects of Physical Development

Body and brain changes

Growth, changes to body systems, motor skill development

Aspects of Cognitive Development

Thinking and learning changes

Learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, creativity

Aspects of Psychosocial Development

Emotional and social changes

Emotions, personality, and social relationships

What is the question of the Normative Approach?

Studies average development, looks at the average age children reach milestones

"What is normal development?

Researchers study large groups of children to determine the average age when developmental milestones occur.

What are Developmental Milestones?

Typical ages for reaching skills

Skills or abilities that most children reach around a certain age. Guidelines—not exact ages

ex. Crawling, walking, puberty

How does culture influence developmental milestones?

Some milestones are universal:

- Puberty

- Physical growth

Some are culture-specific:

- Starting school

- Social expectations

Ex: In many developed countries, school begins around 5-6 years old while other countries may start much later.

What is Developmental Psychology>

Study of human growth throughout life

Cognitive Development Milestones in Infants (0-12 months)

(6-9mths): Shake head "no"

(8mths): Develop Object Permanence *Piaget

(9-12mths): Follow simple requests ("wave bye-bye"), First meaningful gestures

Cognitive Development Milestones in Toddlers (1-2yo)

Because they have object permanence, toddlers:

- Enjoy hide-and-seek

- Know people return after leaving

- Point to pictures

- Find requested objects

What kind of language development do Toddlers (1-2yo) go through?

(First words and rapid language growth)

Birth: Recognize mother's voice

Immediately: Cooing ("ba," "coo")

Later: Babbling ("mama," "dada")

~12 months: First meaningful word

~18 months: Combine words

Age 2: 50-200 word vocabulary

Cognitive Development of Preschoolers (3-5yo)

- Count

- Name colors

- Know name & age

- Make simple decisions

- Understand before/after

- Predict story events

- Enjoy humor

- Pretend play (symbolic thinking)

- Ask lots of "Why?" questions

When does Theory of Mind develop?

Develops between 3-5 years

What do children realize when Theory of Mind Develops?

Children realize other people have different:

- thoughts

- feelings

- beliefs

What doe Theory of Mind allow children to do?

Allows them to:

- Understand others' emotions

- Persuade people

- Tease

- Recognize false beliefs

Cognitive Development in Middle & Late Childhood (6-11yo)

Children become more logical

They can:

- Think about past, present, future

- Plan ahead

- Understand cause & effect

- Solve math problems

- Organize thoughts

What is an 11yo's attention span like?

Still limited, continues improving as they age

What is the timeline of language development from birth to 1yo?

Birth: Recognizes mother's voice

Soon after birth: Cooing

Later infancy: Babbling

12 months: First meaningful word

What is the timeline of language development from 18mths to age 7?

18mths: Combines words

Age 2: 50-200 words

Age 3: Up to 1,000 words; speaks in sentences

Age 5: Understand ~6,000 words; speaks ~2,000

Age 7: Fluent speech; uses slang & cliches

What is the vocabulary spurt like for children?

Some children lean 10-20 new words/week

Not every child experiences this

What were B.F. Skinner's thoughts on language?

(Behaviorism)

- Language is learned

- Parents reinforce speech

ex: Child: "Me Juice" -> Parents gives them juice -> reinforces language

*Reinforcement

What were Noam Chomskys thoughts on language?

Language ability is innate

Proposed the Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

*Born with language ability

What is the modern view on language development?

Both Skinner and Chomsky are correct

Language develops through:

Nature (innate ability)

Nurture (environment and interaction)

Key points of Cognitive Development for: (8mths), (1-2yo), (3-5yo), (6-11yo)

8 months: Object permanence

1-2 years: First words and rapid language growth

3-5 years: Pretend play, curiosity, Theory of Mind

6-11 years: Logical thinking, planning, cause & effect

What are the major cognitive development changes in Adolescence?

Thinking becomes:

- Faster, more efficient, more complex and abstract

(Piaget called this Formal Operational)

What can teens begin to do as they develop cognitively?

-Think abstractly

- Imagine hypothetical situations

- Debate ideas (Politics, religion, justice)

- Consider multiple perspectives

- Question authority and social norms

What is Cognitive Empathy?

Ability to understand another person's perspective and feelings

Also known as "Theory of Mind"

When does Cognitive Empathy develop in boys and girls?

Boys: around 15

Girls: Around 13

What does higher Cognitive Empathy help with?

- Social problem-solving

- Conflict avoidance

- Understanding others

What is linked to higher empathy development?

Supportive Parents

What is Cognitive Psychology?

Study of mental processes

What does Cognitive Psychology study?

How we:

- Perceive

- Learn

- Remember

- Think

- Reason

- Understand

- Solve problems

Behaviorism

Early 1900s

Only focused on:

Observable behavior

Ignored:

Thoughts, memory, internal mental processes

Problem: Couldn't explain complex learning

Overview of the Cognitive Revolution

1950s - 1960s

Psychology shifted back towards studying the mind

Birth of modern cognitive psychology

What are the two assumptions of Cognitive Psychology?

1. Mental processes can be studied scientifically

2. The mind processes information using rules and algorithms

Brain = information processor

What are the three main approaches to Cognitive Psychology?

Experimental, Computational, Neural

What are the aspects of the Experimental approach to Cognitive Psychology

Uses experiments to measure:

- Reaction Time

- Eye Movements

- Accuracy

What are the aspects of the Computational approach to Cognitive Psychology

Uses:

- Computer Models

- Mathematical Models

to stimulate thinking

What are the aspects of the Neural approach to Cognitive Psychology

Studies the brain directly using:

- fMRI

- EEG

- PET scans

What are the subdomains of Cognitive Psychology?

- Perception

- Attention

- Learning

- Memory

- Concept Formation

- Judgement & Decision-Making

- Reasoning

- Problem-Solving

- Language Processing

Perception subdomain

How we interpret sensory information

Example: Eyes receive light → Brain creates meaningful images.

Attention subdomain

How we focus on important information while ignoring distractions.

Learning subdomain

How we acquire new knowledge or skills.

Includes

- Conditioning

- Habits

- Concepts

- Experience

Memory subdomain

How information is stored, remembered, retrieved

Types:

- facts

- skills

- working memory

- short-term memory

Concept Formation subdomain

Grouping things into categories

Example: Dog, cat, bird -> Animals

Judgement & Decision-Making subdomain

How people make choices - not always rational

- Biases

- Heuristics

- Emotions

Reasoning subdomain

Using logic to reach conclusions

Two types: Deductive, Inductive

Deductive Reasoning

General -> Specific

"If all birds have feathers" -> "A robin has feathers"

Inductive Reasoning

Specific observation -> General conclusion

"I've seen ten white swans" -> "All swans are white"

Problem Solving subdomain

Finding ways to reach a goal

Can use:

- Algorithms (step by step)

- Heuristics (mental shortcuts)

Language Processing subdomain

How we:

- Learn Language

- Understand Speech

- Read

- Produce Language

What are some applications of Cognitive Psychology?

- Better computer interfaces

- A.I.

- Financial software

- Brain implants (cochlear, Retinal)