Anatomy and Physiology Exam 1

Chpts 1, 5, 6

Organization level

Atom, molecule, organelle, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism

Body Systems

digestive

respiratory

urinary

nervous

circulatory/cardiovascular

skeletal

muscular

integumentary

lymphatic

endocrine

reproductive

Digestive system

Mechanical and chemical processes of digestion (nutrition + waste removal)

Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, accessory organs

Respiratory

Exchange of O2 and CO2 in blood, regulates blood pH (oxygen + waste removal)

Lungs and respiratory passages

Urinary

Waste removal, regulates pH, ion, water balance

Kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, urethra

Nervous

Internal communication and functions

Brain, spinach chord, nerves, sensory receptors

Cardiovascular

Nutrition development/transport, waste removal, immune response

Heart, blood vessels, blood

Skeletal

Support and protection, making red blood cells (erythropoiesis)

Bones, cartilage, ligaments, joints

Muscular

Protection, movement, support

Muscles (attached to skeleton)

Integumentary

Protection, Vitamin D production, waste removal

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands

Lymphatic

Immune response, waste removal

Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, lymphatic organs (tonsils, spleen)

Endocrine

Internal communication

Glands that secrete hormones, pituitary gland

Reproductive (F)

Propagation of species

Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary glands

Reproductive (M)

Propagation of species

Testes, ducts, penis

Characteristics of Life

Organization

Metabolism

Responsiveness

Growth

Development

Reproduction

Homeostasis

Regulation of changing variables within a normal range to maintain a constant state within the body around a set point.

Negative feedback loop

Maintains homeostasis by reducing the deviation from the normal range.

temp of 100 → sweat to reduce to 98.6ish

blood sugar too low → release of glucagon to raise back to normal

Positive feedback loop

Regulation of homeostasis by increasing deviation from set point.

Baby stretches uterus stimulating contractions → causes baby to stretch uterus more

Loosing blood → thrombin produces more thrombin until no more clotting can happen

Anatomical position

Standing up, with face forward, upper limbs at side with hands supinated

Supination and pronation

Supination - Face up

Pronation - Face down

Superior (cephalic) and Inferior (caudal)

Superior - above

Inferior - below

Superficial and Deep

Superficial - closer to surface

Deep - further from surface

Anterior (ventral) and posterior (dorsal)

Anterior - front

Posterior - back

Proximal and distal

Proximal - closer to point of attachment

Distal - further from point of attachment

Used only in reference to limbs

Lateral and medial

Lateral - away from midline of body

Medial - closer to midline of body

Head region

Frontal, orbital, nasal, oral, otic, buccal, mental, cranial, occipital

Neck region

Cervical, nuchal

Trunk

Thoracic, abdomen, pelvis, dorsal, sacral, gluteal, perineal

Upper limb

Manual, clavicular, axillary, brachial, antebrachial, acromial, olecranon, dorsum

Lower limb

Pedal, coxal, femoral, patellar, crural, popliteal, sural, plantar, calcaneal

Major planes of the body

Sagital - splits structure into left and right

Transverse - splits section into superior and inferior

Coronal - splits section splits section into anterior and posterior

Thoracic cavity

Houses heart, lungs, and other organs. Bounded by diaphragm and ribs.

Includes pleural cavities and mediastinum

Abdominal cavity

Digestive organs, stomach, intestines, liver, spleen. Bound by diaphragm and muscles

Mediastinum

Houses heart, thymus, trachea, esophagus, major blood vessels.

Inside thoracic cavity

Serous membranes

Lines walls of body cavities and surface of internal organs. Double layered

Parietal serous membrane

Serous membrane layer that lines wall of the cavity

Visceral serous membrane

Serous membrane layer that covers internal organs

Pericardial cavity membranes

Parietal pericardium

Visceral pericardium

Pericardial fluid

Pleural cavity membranes

Parietal pleura

Visceral pleura

Pleural fluid

Peritoneal cavity membranes

Parietal peritoneum

Visceral peritoneum

Peritoneal fluid

Mesentery

Double fold in visceral peritoneum that allows for nerves and blood vessels to reach digestive organs.

Retroperitoneal organs

Behind the peritoneal cavity. Kidney, ureters, adrenal glands, large amount of pancreas and some of large intestine, urinary bladder.

Skin functions

Protects against UV, abrasions, microorganisms, water loss

Temperature regulation through heat loss

Vitamin D production

Sensations

Hair Functions

Protects against abrasion and UV, insulates, sensations

Function of Nails

Protection

Glands

Excretion of waste

Epidermis

Most superficial part of the skin. No blood vessels, made up of stratified squamous epithelial.

Stratum corneum, lucidum, granulosum, spinosum, basale

Stratum corneum

Superficial part of epidermis

25+ layers dead cells

Stratum lucidum

Under corneum, 3-5 layers of dead cells.

Only in thick skin

Stratum granulosum

Under lucidum

2-5 layers of flattened cells

Makes keratohyalin granuols, where cells start to die

Stratum spinosum

8-10 layers

Makes keratin fibers

Stratum basale

1 layer of cuboidal or columnar cells.

Where melanocyte are located, and create melanin

basement membrane underneath

Keratinization

As cells move up from basale, it picks up keratin causing cells to become more durable and change shape and chemical composition

Thick skin

Has all 5 epithelial strata, no hair

Palms, soles, fingertips

Thin skin

Flexible, stratum lucidum not present, has hair

Covers most of the body

Skin color determinants

Melanin - amount and type determine pigment of skin

Carotene - excess stored in corneum and adipocytes causing yellow tint

Blood - amount of blood flow in an area

Dermis

Deep to epidermis, superficial to hypodermis.

Functional strength and flexibility of skin

Mostly connective tissue

Papillary and reticular layers

Papillary layer

Superficial part of dermis

Supply epidermis with O2 & nutrients (in dermal papillae), removes waste, regulates temp

Loose connective tissue

Reticular layer

Deep part of dermis

Main fibrous layer of dermis

Provides structural strength through dense irregular connective tissue

Subcutaneous tissue/hypodermis

Deepest part of epithelial

Attaches dermis to underlying structures, provides energy storage, insulation, padding

Mostly loose connective tissue (adipose and areolar tissue)

Lanugo hair

Unpigmented hair on fetus during 5-6th month of fetal development

Vellus hair

Short, fine, usually unpigmented.

Replaces lanugo everywhere but scalp, eyelids, eyebrow

Terminal hair

Long, course, pigmented. Replaces lanugo on scalp, eyelids, eyebrows. Replaces vellus hair, mainly axillary and pubic regions, at puberty.

Hair shaft

Hair above the surface of the skin

Hair root

Below the surface of the skin

Hair bulb

Base of the root expanded

Hair Matrix

Collection of epithelial cells in the hair bulb

Hair papilla

Where dermis projects into hair bulb

Hair follicle

Runs from dermis to epidermis.

Dermal root sheath and epithelial root sheaths

Medulla

Central axis of hair

Hair Cortex

Surround medulla, makes up bulk of the hair

Hair Cuticle

Covers cortex, cells overlap

Dermal root sheath

Part of dermis that surrounds epithelial root sheath

Epithelial root sheath

Part of epithelial that surrounds the root

Internal root sheath + external root sheath

Hair growth period

Phase of growth for hair, length of phase varies by location

Hair rest period

Phase where hair stops growing, when rest over, hair falls out, length of phase varies by location.

Arrector pili

Smooth muscle attached to hair follicle. Contraction of muscle causes hair to stand up on end/goosebumps.

Sebaceous gland

Feeds into hair gland, found in dermis

Not in thick skin

Secretes sebum to soften and lubricate skin to create barrier.

Eccrine gland

Most present in palms, soles, and axillae

• Responds less to temperature in these regions

Empties onto skin surface

Helps with thermoregulation

Aprocrine gland

Does not help with thermoregulation

In axillae and genitalia, activates during genitalia

Opens into hair follicle, provides lubrication

Mammary gland

Modified apocrine gland

Unique to females

Located in breast to make milk.

Ceruminous gland

Secretes cerumen (ear wax) for protection

In lining of external ear canal

Nail root

Covered by skin, extends into nail bed

Nail body/plate

Visible part of nail

Nail bed

Extension of nail root, under nail body

Nail folds

Goes around the nail

• Lateral folds (long part)

• Proximal folds (near cuticle)

Nail matrix

Where almost all of the nail is made

Near the root

Lunula

Part of nail matrix visible through nail body

White part under cuticle

Eponychium (cuticle)

Extension of skin growing into nail

Hyponychium

Extension of stratum corneum, skin under the nail

Free edge

Overhang of the nail body

Nail production

Starts in the matrix, where most of the nail production occurs.

Grow continuously through life and do not have rest phase.

Vitamin D production and function

Increases calcium uptake

Helps with regulation of calcium and phosphate homeostasis. Produced through skin exposure to UV

Basal cell carcinoma

Most common and treatable. Slow growing.

Stratum basale cells proliferate and invade dermis + hypodermis

Squamous cell carcinoma

Effects keratinocytes of stratum spinosum

Grows rapidly and metastasizes

Melanoma

Effects melanocytes

Most dangerous and likely to metastasize

Age related changes in integumentary system

Loss of function overtime

Skin of epidermis sinks in because collagen fibers break

Skeletal system components

Tendon - connects bone to muscle

Ligament - connects bone to bone

Bone - Gives structure

Cartilage - supporting structures

Skeletal system functions

Support - bones proved framework

Protection - bones protect vital organs

Movement - provides levers for muscles

Storage - reservoir for minerals

Blood cell production - occurs in cavities of bone

Chondroblasts

Builds cartilage, eventually turns into chondrocytes after matrix hardens