Psych Exam 3

Biopsychology

Biopsychology

Communication within the brain

Neuron: cell in nervous system that recieves, integrates, and transmits information

Parts of the neuron

Dendrites: receive messages from other neurons (on the very left)

Soma: Cell body (contains the cell nucleus(life support of neuron))

Axon: long thin fiber that transmits signals

Myelin sheath: insulating material that coats axons and speeds transmission of info

Terminal buttons: small knobs that secrete neurotransmitters to transmit the neuron’s message (on the very right, at the end)

Synapse: tiny gap between neurons where info is transmitted

How does a neuron transmit info?

Action potential (brief electrical charge) travels down axon to terminal buttons

When action potential reaches terminal buttons, they release neutransmitters into synapse

Neurotransmitters: chemical messengers released from terminal buttons that travel across synapse to receptors on dendrites of other neurons

When enough neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the next neuron’s dendrites, it causes the neuron to fire

This is an “all or nothing” phenomenon

Neurotransmitters

Several types, each with specific functions

• Receptors on dendrities are specialized: only certain neurotransmitters can bind to them

Reputake: the process of reabsorbing unused neurotransmitters

Agonists: chemical that mimics actions of neurotransmitters causing similar effects

Antagonists: chemical that opposes the action of a neurotransmitter

Other cells in the brain?

Glia cells: cells in the nervous system that support, nourish and protect neurons

• Supply nourishment

• Get rid of waste

• Provide insulation

The Nervous System

Electro-chemical comunnicartion system

Two major branches:

• Central Nervous System (CNS): brain and spinal cord

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): all nerves that are outside of brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System

Somatic Nervous System: nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal muscles and sensory receptors

• Afferent nerve fibers: carry info to CNS from body

• Efferent nerve fibers: carry info to body from CNS

Autonomic Nervous System: made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood vessels, organs, glands (parts we do not have control over, automatic)

Autonomic Nervous System

Sympathetic Nervous System: mobilizes body’s resources for emergencies (getting our body ready to deal with threats or emergencies)

It will increase and decrease your parts for serious matters

Parasympathetic Nervous System: calming system that tries to conserve body’s resources when there isn’t an immediate threat (telling your parts to go back to it’s normal state after the emergency)

Consciousness

Our awareness of internal and external sensations

Exists on a continuum

Not controlled by one brain area, but by patterns of brain activation

Consciousness is often studied with an EEG

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Electrodes on scalp measures waves of electrical activity from brain

Waves differ in amplitude (height) and frequency (speed of occurrence)

Stages of sleep

Distinctive changes in brain activity and physiology as you pass through levels of sleep

Beta stage: awake, alert (short waves, lowest amplitude, highest frequency)

Alpha stage: awake, drowsy (lower frequency, higher amplitude, more rhythmic)

Stages of Sleep: NON- REM

Stage 1: Transition from wakefulness

Theta waves

Lasts only a few minutes

May experience: Dreams, mild hallucinations, sensation of falling, body jerks

Stage 2:

Theta waves with:

• Sleep spindles: bursts of high frequency waves

• K-complexes: bursts of high amplitude waves

• Tension, heart rate, BP, temp, respiraton decrease

Stage 3: Deep Sleep

Delta waves (Slowest and tallest of all)

Body very relaxed, BP, temp, breathing, blood to brain reduced

Deepest body sleep

Hard to wake, but still somewhat aware of environment

Stages of sleep: REM

REM sleep characterzied by:

• Rapid eye movement (REM): Every 30 seconds, eye moves rapidly under closed lids

• Active Brain Waves, similar to Beta Waves (similar to the waves when we were awake)

• High level of physiological arousal (sexual arousal to the genitals)

• Body is “paralyzed” (Muscles receive signals to not move)

  • Paradoxical sleep: body still, peaceful while highly aroused

• Frequent dreaming: majority of dreaming occurs in REM

Stages of sleep (pattern)

Every night, go through stages multiple times

1-2-3-2

But instead of re-entering stage one, we enter REM

Cycle repeats throughout sleep period:

1-2-3-2-REM-2-3-2-REM

Less time in deep sleep

More time in REM as night passes

Dreaming

Everyone (with healthy, non-medicated brains) dreams

REM: more dreams, dreams more likely to be bizarre, emotional, vivid, memorable

NREM: fewer dreams, dreams mundane/boring

Dreaming usually includes

Familiar people and places

Affected by our daily experiences and culture

Majority have negative content

Dreams: What do they mean?

Freud and Psychoanalytic Theroy: dreams represent unconscious desires/conflicts

• Manifest content: actual content of dream

• Latent content: hidden meaning of dream

• No evidence to support this view; very subjective

Activation-Synthesis Theory

Dreams are a byproduct of a neural activity

• During REM sleep, random selection activation of brain triggers sensory system

• Brain makes sense of random firing by synthesizing it with memories

Using memories and experience we already have

Threat simulation theory

Dreams allow us to rehearse survival strategies

Social simulation theory

Dreams allow us to rehearse strategies for dealing with social/behavioral situations

Sleep Problems and Disorders (Look at other disorders)

Sleep Paralysis: Waking up, feeling paralyzed

• Usually occurs when waking or falling asleep

• Cause: Brain becomes aware before deep muscle relaxation of REM stops

• Hypnagogic Sleep Paralysis: in addition to paralysis, experience hallucinations

• Stress or alcohol

Insomnia - inability to fall asleep or the inability to remain asleep. Subjectively, people report the sensation that they cannot “turn their brain off” and rest.

Idiopathic Insomnia - his form of insomnia begins in childhood and is experienced through adulthood. Currently, we do not understand the underlying causes, but we do know that this form of insomnia is much more resistant to treatment.

Hypersomnia - excessive sleepiness

Sleep apnea - intake of oxygen is reduced as the person sleeps—usually for only short periods of time, but on occasion for as long as a minute. In some cases, breathing may become quite shallow; in more severe cases, the individual stops breathing entirely.

Narcolepsy - a rare genetic neurodegenerative disorder characterized by several symptoms, most notably a sudden and extreme need to sleep. These sleep attacks are uncontrollable and can last anywhere from a few seconds to a few minutes.

REM sleep behavior - act out the contents of their dreams

Hypnosis

State of heightened relaxation and suggestibility

Able to control behavior and will not act against your will

Who can be hypnotized?

• 10% easily, 10% not at all

Need:

• Good concentration

• Ability to relax

• Strong visual imagery

• Suggestibility

• Desire to be hypnotized

The first neuron is sending its signals to two other neurons. The neurotransmitters will release from the ___________ of the first neuron and travel to the _____________ of the other two neurons 

terminal buttons; postsynaptic receptors on the dendrites 

When a cell that is at rest receives enough excitatory chemical messages, the cell will produce an action potential. Based on what you just read, put the steps of the action potential in order. Use the animation to help if you get stuck. 

The cell is at rest.

Neurotransmitters bind to the receptor site on a dendrite.

An electrical charge starts at the axon hillock .

The electrical charge travels down the axon.

The terminal buttons release neurotransmitters to bind to other dendrites.

Match the parts of the neuron with their correct function.

Dendrites	Location of the receptors and place where neurotransmitters bind to the cell
Axon hillock	Location where the action potential begins
Terminal buttons	Location where neurotransmitters are released into the synapse
Myelin	Insulates the axon from the extracellular fluid and speeds neural transmission
Nodes of Raniver	The location on the axon that is not myelinated, allowing the cell to interact with the extracellular fluid.

Match the type of cell with its description.

Oligodendrocytes	Wrap around the axons of some neurons in the brain and spinal cord
Microglia	Provide immune system support to the nervous system
Interneurons	Convey messages between neurons
Sensory neuron	Conveys afferent messages about the environment toward the central nervous system
Motor neuron	Conveys efferent messages toward the muscles to create movement

Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse then join with receptors. Where are these receptors?

Dendrite

A	Soma
B	Dendrite
C	Axon hillock
D	Axon
E	Myelin
F	Node of Ranvier
G	Axon terminal
H	Terminal button

A excitatory message has just been received by a cell. The parts of the cell are going to respond in a particular order. Put the following steps in the correct order. (Assume we are only looking at the behavior of a single cell.) 

The neurotransmitter binds to a receptor site on the dendrite.

The electrical signal starts at the axon hillock.

The message travels down the axon.

Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse by the terminal buttons.

Imagine that a neuron has just received an excitatory message. Put the steps of an action potential in their correct order.

The threshold of excitation is met.

The cell depolarizes as positive ions rush in.

The cell sends an action potential down the axon.

The cell kicks out positively charged ions and repolarizes.

The cell kicks out too many positively charged ions and hyperpolarizes.

The cell retrieves a just few positively charged ions and returns to resting.

What do the vesicles do?

Vesicles are little packages of neurotransmitters inside the terminal button.

You just read about how neurotransmitters are released into the synapse to bind with the dendrites of other neurons. Please put the steps of this process in the correct order. 

Vesicles of neurotransmitters are housed in the presynaptic terminal button.

The presynaptic cell has an action potential and releases neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on a postsynaptic receptor site on the dendrite of another neuron.

Match the term to the correct location on the neuron.

Presynaptic	The terminal button of a cell where neurotransmitters are released
Postsynaptic	The site on a dendrite where neurotransmitters bind to the receptor

Match the neurotransmitter with its effect.

Dopamine	Reward
Serotonin	Mood elevation
Acetylcholine	Muscle contraction
GABA	Inhibition

Match the term with its best description.

Threshold of excitation	When the cell receives a signal that enough positive ions are present to create an action potential
Depolarization	Positively charged ions rapidly enter the cell. The charge of the cell becomes more positive.
Repolarization	Positively charged ions leave the cell. The internal charge of the cell becomes more negative.
Hyperpolarization	Too many positively charged ions have left the cell, so some are retrieved. This can also occur when the cell receives many inhibitory signals.

An excitatory neurotransmitter binding to a receptor would make the charge inside the neuron more _______.

Positive

Sort the following steps in the process of triggering an action potential.

Binding of an excitatory neurotransmitter to a receptor

Influx of positive ions into the cell body

Opening of voltage-gated sodium channels on the cell body

Opening of potassium channels

You are an evil villain who just happens to be masquerading as a psychiatrist. You want to increase depression in your patients. Which of the following would be most effective in your evil plan?

A serotonin receptor antagonist

A significant factor in creating the action potential is that the neuron has which of the following?

Channels that allow ions to come in or leave the neuron

Match the system to the appropriate example.

Sympathetic system	Trevor is competing in nationals for his college swim team. He will use this system to swim the 200-yard crawl faster than anyone else in the water.
Parasympathetic system	Svlatlana is listening to a book on tape about the importance of positive thinking while knitting a sweater for her granddaughter.

What data are available to support the idea that the behavior of the gut can influence the brain? 

Activity of the vagus nerve has been shown to influence anxiety and depression.

What do we mean when we say that the gut-brain axis is bidirectional? 

The system can send and receive signals from the CNS to the ENS and back again.

Terrance was in a push-up contest. He was trying to complete 500 push-ups in under an hour. He sent messages to contract and relax his biceps using which system? 

Somatic nervous system

Match the term to the correct description

Gray matter	The portion of the CNS made up of dendrites, cell bodies, and unmyelinated axons
White matter	The portion of the CNS made up of axons and oligodendrocytes that myelinate the axons

Eliza is about to go to sleep when she hears a loud noise in her kitchen. Her heart starts to race, she starts to breathe quickly, and she can feel all the hairs on her arms stand on end. These responses were triggered by which of Eliza's systems?

Sympathetic nervous system

Match the following structures with their function.

Afferent nerve fibers	Nerve fibers that send electrical impulses/messages from the body toward the brain
Efferent nerve fibers	Nerve fibers that send electrical impulses/messages from the brain toward the body

Spinal cord

A pathway that allows signals to pass through to let the body listen to the brain and operate.

Medulla

It's like a door that must remain open, so your brain can signal your body to breathe and remain alive. 

Pons

A bridge that connects from the upper part to the lower part of your brain, and it directs how much energy or rest our body needs at the moment. 

Cerebellum

A mini brain that does not make our body move, but how to make our body accurately time our movements and remain stable. 

Reticular Formation (aka the Reticular Activating System)

How much arousal and attention will allow depending on what situation we are in. 

Thalamus

A telescope that makes us focus on a specific section while in control of our arousal and attention. 

Hypothalamus

It's like a caretaker who actively checks in to make sure your hunger, sleep, arousal, and others remain balanced and reminds us to take care of these important matters. 

Hippocampus

An organizer who constantly files and stores new memories so we can go back into our file cabinet and retrieve them later. 

Amygdala

A pit of fire that reacts to a fearful situation and lets us know that adding more fear and stress to it will increase more fire. 

Corpus callosum

A mailman who carries the shared messages back-in-forth between the two hemispheres. 

Occipital lobes

A picture book we look at through our eyes to find an understanding behind it

Parietal Lobes

A forcefield around ourselves that helps us sense the change in temperature, touch, or others and how we process that. 

Temporal Lobes

A tape recorder that records sound to us and fills us in on what we hear and how to understand it. 

Frontal Lobes

The leader of the operation who must look things over and decide how to act upon our decisions. 

Somatosensory Cortex

It signals what our body is feeling from pain or temperature and where it is, and it also lets us know what body part is in function right now when we move.

Motor Cortex

A commander who commands which muscle must work when we want to move. 

Broca’s Area

An area in our brain that helps us process and control speech correction. 

Wernicke’s Area

An area in our brain that helps us understand language in general. 

Match the term used to describe the directions of the body with those used by neuroanatomists. 

Anterior	Rostral
Dorsal	Superior
Posterior	Caudal
Ventral	Inferior

How is the thalamus like the air space above London? 

The thalamus acts like an air traffic controller in your brain, but for your  senses. 

Please match each lobe to its function.

Occipital lobes	Visual processing
Temporal lobes	Some kinds of memory, auditory information, and language processing
Parietal lobe	Counting, space, movement processing
Frontal lobe	Decide when, why and how we do things

Match the brain area to one of its implicated functions.

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex	Controls working memory
Primary motor cortex	Sends efferent commands for voluntary movements
Somatosensory cortex	Receives afferent signals about the state of the body
Ventromedial prefrontal cortex	Regulates fear-based behavior

Which of the following do you think would NOT be a result of parietal lobe damage?

Problems navigating space

Unpredictable behavior

Lack of conscious feeling in extremities

An inability to read

Match the function with the correct part of the brain.

Coordination of movement	Cerebellum
Auditory processing	Temporal lobe
Visual processing	Occipital lobe
Breathing and respiration	Medulla

Which of the following, as its primary function, helps the two hemispheres of the brain communicate?

Corpus callosum

Which of the following brain areas are directly involved in automating motor skills?

The basal ganglia and the cerebellum 

Match each neuroscience method with its primary characteristic or strength.

single-unit recording	Offers extremely precise information about the firing of an individual neuron
EEG	Excellent for precisely timing brain activity (milliseconds)
lesion method	Infers brain function by observing deficits after brain damage
MRI	Provides incredibly detailed structural images of soft tissue, no radiation
TMS	Can establish a causal link between a brain region and behavior by temporary disruption

Which method involves injecting a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream to measure metabolic activity or neurotransmitter distribution in the brain? 

PET

Which of the following is a limitation of electroencephalography (EEG)? 

It has poor spatial resolution. 

If a psychologist is interested in seeing which brain areas become most active when someone is solving a complex math problem, which functional neuroimaging technique would be most appropriate? 

fMRI

Raisa has had an extreme headache for the last several days and doctors want to determine if she may have had a stroke. Which method would be most appropriate for seeing a detailed image of the structure of the brain? 

fMRI

What part of the brain is crucial for higher brain functions like memory, thought, and language, and is thought to give rise to consciousness?

The cerebral cortex

Francis Crick and Christoph Koch worked on a concept known as the 'binding problem'. What does this problem ask?

How the brain integrates different sensory information and internal experiences into one conscious experience

Which of the following would not be considered part of consciousness?

Different levels of arousal and attention

The content of your current thoughts and internal states

Your subjective awareness of internal and external events

The signals from your brain telling your heart to beat

If Sally is currently worrying about all the things she needs to do during the day, it is most likely that a psychologist would say these thoughts are parts of which component of Sally's experience?

Conscious Content

If I showed a person with split brain an image of a car on the right and an image of a dog on the left, I should expect which of the following?

This person could name the car

This person could name the dog

This person could draw a car with their right hand and not know why

This person could draw a dog with their left hand and not know why

Which components of conscious experience is controlled by activity in the reticular activating system?

States of consciousness

If Malcom is dreaming that he is a knight riding a fire-breathing doughnut through a tunnel of Cheerios, which of the following can we also assume?

Malcom is anxious.

Malcom’s EEG would most likely reflect delta activity.

Messages sent from Malcom’s brain to his body would be reduced.

Malcom’s EEG would most likely reflect beta activity.

If you are looking at an EEG a person and they exhibit theta waves, K-complexes, and sleep spindles, you would predict this person is in:

NREM2

A person who is difficult to wake is most likely in which of the following stages? They should also be groggy and confused upon waking.

Slow-wave sleep

Match the stage of sleep with the correct pattern you would expect to observe on an EEG.

Stage 1	Theta waves
Stage 2	Sleep spindles and K-complexes
Slow-wave sleep	Delta activity
REM	Beta waves

If you are looking at an EEG of a participant in Stage 2 sleep, which of the following would you expect to encounter? 

Sleep spindles and K-complexes

Eli is deeply asleep when his roommate, Seth, comes home and wants to talk.  Seth has a difficult time waking Eli up and upon waking Eli was groggy and confused.  It is most likely that Eli was in which stage of sleep.

NREM3

Another name for slow-wave sleep is ______.

NREM3

You are looking at the EEG of a person and they spend 50 percent of their time asleep in REM. It is likely that this person is ______.

An infant

Ashley has an organic chemistry exam tomorrow. Based on what you know about the functions of sleep, what would you advise her to do?

She should be sure to get a full night's sleep before an exam, because both slow-wave and REM sleep help with memory consolidation.

Which of the following cognitive effects was the first to manifest in Randy Gardner's experiment?

Difficulty identifying objects by touch

What surprising physical feat did Randy Gardner manage to accomplish during his sleep deprivation?

He beat Dr. Dement in a game of pinball

Which of the following was a long-term consequence that Randy Gardner directly linked to his experiment?

Chronic insomnia for decades