Alexander the Great: Midterm Preparation Sheet

Chiefdom

social differentiation: formal leadership that controls production and redistribution of surplus; council of chiefs with a single paramount chief)

Polis

a city and its adjacent territory (villages), which together make up a single self-governing political unity (communal space in city centre)

Hoplite

- heavily armed citizen soldiers

- tighly packed with bronze sheild spear

- Typical Greek soldier

Isonomia

Equal political rights (Cleisthenes' reform)

- assembly of all free male citizens

- council of 500

- popular courts with mass juries = an enormous step towards democracy

Ahura Mazda

God promoted by Darius

= the god of truth (fight against "the lie"

- persain empire

Achaemenid

Darius the Achaemenid seizes power in the army and wins the throne in the civil war

= Daris I

Cyrus the Great

- Persian Empire - overthrow of Astyages the Mede

- Fall of Lydia: Croesus' Oracle, and now the Ionians are part of the Persian Empire

- Conquest of Babylon: Cylinder of Cyrus, return of jews from Babylonian exile

Daris I (7)

- Seizes power in the army and wins the throne in a civil war

- Religious aspect of Kingship

• Reorganization of the empire

• Expansion of Empire

• Conquest of India ➔ East under control

• Persia has had a fleet since Cyrus/Cambyses ➔expansion into Europe and the Aegean; the Scythian campaign failed, but conquest of Thrace

• Ionian Revolt (Supported by Athens & Crushed by Persia)

Xerxes

Invades Greece in 480;

↳ Full-scale invasion: 300 Spartans, sea battle of Salamis, land battle at Plataea

Delian League

→ Athens leads Greek allies against Persia

→ originally meant to keep fighting Persia and help/free Ionian Greeks

→ over time Athens becomes too powerful

→ League turns into the Athenian Empire

Athenian Empire

What the Delian League gradually became as Athens dominated it

Peloponnesian League

• Sparta and its alliance (Peloponnesian League)

  • Athens vs. Sparta = Peloponnesian War

  • Sparta obtains Persian support, and defeats Athens

Hegemony

One major power dominates and thus guarantees "peace" under its dependent allies

- Problem: No Greek polis was strong enough to permanently enforce its hegemony on all the other Greeks

Common peace

Freedom and autonomy for all poleis = a system of collective security (like United Nations)

- Problem: There is no real mechanism to protect weak poleis from the aggression of powerful poleis

Kings peace

• Artaxerxes II of Persia = guarantor of the peace

• Autonomy & freedom (autonomia & eleutheria) for all Greek poleis

• Except for Ionian Greeks in Asia Minor (belong to Persia)

• Lemnos, Imbros, Scyros (belong to Athens)

➔Logical end of the Peloponnesian War

➔Persia in fact determines which polis is allowed to dominate the other Greeks

Second Athenian League

• Attempt to reconcile the tension between common peace and Hegemony

• Defensive alliance → protection against Spartan aggression

- Respect for the freedom and autonomy of individual members

• Modelled after the Delian League, but safeguards against Athenian imperialism (no garrisons, no governors, no tribute, no Athenian settlers)

• Problem: Athenians become imperialistic again

➔ "Social War"

➔ Loss of most important allies

Republic of North Macedonia

• Republic of North Macedonia = modern country north of Greece, officially renamed from FYROM

• Do not confuse modern North Macedonia with the ancient Kingdom of Macedonia ruled by Philip II and Alexander.

Argead clan

• the Macedonian royal dynasty; because there was no fixed succession rule, different Argead family members could compete to become king.

Upper macedonia

• Murder of potential rivals upon accession to the throne

Heracles

Greek hero-god, ancestor of the Macedonian royal house (Argeads), object of special devotion and emulation by Alex

- Alexander makes a sacrifice at the Persian landing site (highly symbolic ritual)

Achillies

• Olympia is a descendant; Alex's World = Achilles ' World, homeric hero

• Alex garlanded tomb; Patroclus was beloved of Achilles

Thucydides

• historian of the Peloponnesian War

• Acknowledges bias + imperfect memory

• Presents himself at the event or asks multiple eyewitnesses (stories do not always align)

Philip II of Macedon

↳ Macedonia before was rich on resources but very politically unstable & transformed Macedonia from a backward chiefdom kingdom into one of the most powerful states in Greece

↳ 3-d son of Amyntas III

- Passed down unbridled ambition, bravery to Alex

lliad

↳ Extreme competitiveness, epic poem by Homer

↳ Taught to Alex by Lysimachus; understand the Iliad to understand Alex

Macedonian Phalanx

• Tightly packed formation of pezhetairoi armed with long sarissas and small shields

• Traditional lightly armed troops → Macedonian Phalanx

Hetairoi

Companions lived at court with the king

• Strengthening of ties with Macedonian nobles (especially from Upper Macedon

• Cavalry of landed aristocrats (Hetairoi) and their retainer

Basilikoi Phalanx

• Corps of Pages/ royal pages

• Teenage sons of Companions are educated at the king's court, in the king's service (learn sports, hunting, warfare, like royal hostages; aristocrats won't attack)

Sarissa

5-6m long pike

- held with both hands

- provided by Philip; primary weapon of the Macedonian army

Pezhetairoi

foot companions =honorary title

Hypaspistae / Hypaspists

Hypaspistae ('shield bearers') = Elite infantry unit, link between Companion Cavalry and pezhetairoi

Hypaspists: Debate of type of sheild, equipped like: Greek hoplites or Macedonian phalanx pike length

Olympias

• Molossian princess of Epirus

• Philip II’s fourth wife & Alexander’s mother

• Claimed descendant of Achilles, and a major religious/personal influence on Alexander.

  • ↳ Devout member of the orgiastic snake-worshipping cult of Dionysus

Peace of Philocrates

• peace treaty between Macedonia and Athens; marks the end of the Third Sacred War.

• Athens revokes after Philip attacks Byzantium

Aristotle

↳ Alex's teacher at Mieza (Homer Lliad - key to understanding Alexander)

Bucephalas

- Thessalian Stallion -afraid of his own shadow, alex tames (Ox - Head)

Battle of Chaeronea (338BC)

- Philip II and Macedonia vs. Athens + Thebes

- Infantry (philip) & Cavalry (Alexander)

↳ Alex destroyed Thebes ' sacred band (Buried Lion MT)

- The major Greek poleis could no longer effectively resist Macedonian power

- After this was how he solidified his rule over Greece

League of Corinth

- States of Greece (NOT Sparta) = Members of the Common Peace

- Loyalty to Philip's descendants

↳ Each polis has to provide a military contingent to protect the common peace (peace breaker)

↳ The hegemon = Philip elected by the council (synedrion)

↳ Common peace combined with hegemonic symmetry

↳ League decree: invasion of Persia

Papyrus roll

- First record-keeping storage survived only in Egypt because it was dry

- Was later recopied into parchment codices

Parchment codex

- Late Antiquity book format that replaced papyrus rolls, precursor to books

- copying introduced text mistakes/ varitations

Quellenanayse

Source analysis (Quellenkritik & Quellenforschung)

Quellenkritik

source criticism

Quellenforschung

- Researching the sources

- Tracing information back to original source

Callisthenes (3)

• Official court historian of Alexander (Deeds of Alex)

• Glorification of Alexander's campaigns + achievements, Homeric Hero

• Executed by Alex

Ptolemy I Soter (5)

• Alexander’s childhood friend and general

• later Pharaoh of Egypt;

• wrote a firsthand, military-focused history of Alexander

• had a pro-Alexander/successor bias

> Composed memoirs/History of Alex

Aristobulus of Cassandreia (3)

- Greek engineer & military officer under Alexander

- Historical account of Alexander's campaigns (geographical and practical details)

-Flatterer, praises + Whitewashes Alex: (Chivalrous + social drinker)

Chares of Mytilene (3)

• Alexander's Chamberlain

• whitewashed stories

• Court life, gossipy anecdotes, works read by Aristobulus + Plutarch

Nearchus of Crete

- Alexander’s childhood friend (Corps of Pages)and admiral who wrote about his voyage from the Indus to the Persian Gulf (geographical observations + encounters with new cultures)

• A major source for Arrian’s Indica.

Cleitarchus of Alexandria

• Non-eyewitness historian who used eyewitness testimony; wrote a popular dramatic account of Alexander;

• ↳ Romanticizing, sensationalism & vivid storytelling

• founded the Vulgate tradition (Most important)

Diodorus Siculus (3)

- 1st century BCE

- Vulgate tradition (Cleitarchue) = simplistic + accessible

- Universal history that includes Alexander's life & campaigns

Pompeius Trogus

• 1st century BCE

• Vulgate tradition

• Romanized Gaul

• Universal history with a focus on Philip + Alex

Justin

• wrote: Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus

• Latin, 2nd - 3rd century CE

• Vulgate - condensed version of P. Trogus's lost history (major events & Themes)

Curtius Rufus (5)

- 1st century CE

- Vulgate (most lost

- History of Alex the Great, Latin

- Vivid, highly rhetorical and dramatic account of Alex's campaigns

- Focus on his personality, leadership & moral struggles

Arrian of Nicomedia

• official tradition, 1st cent. CE

• Anabasis of Alex, books, Indica (India campaign + Nearchus' voyage)

• Detailed military historical account of Alexander's campaigns

• Critical approach, avoids sensationalism: considered the most reliable source

Plutarch

• Official & Vulgate Tradition

• Life of Alexander, 46- 120 CE

• Writes biographies, not histories: Focuses on character (virtues, morals & anecdotes)

• reports 3 birth myths

• Use of contemporary sources: Written by eyewitnesses

Vulgate tradition

• Dramatic/ sensational noticeably more hostile (less apologetic)

Parmenion

-General, defeated the Illyrians on the day of Alexander's birth 356 BCE

↳trusted general of Philip, right-hand man

-led Alexander's infantry -> his sons (Nicomachus, Philotas) led other parts of the army

>believes Alex should wait at the River Granicus battle

Attalus

- trusted general

- Philip marries his niece: Macedonian Cleopatra

- Raped Pausanias; no punishment = position of power

- Alex executes him to eliminate threats to the throne; Attalus questioned his legitimacy -not 100%. Macedonian

Pausanias of Orestis

- King Philip's accession - then killed immediately

- fought by his side to earn his trust, but Philip let him get Raped by Altalus with no justice, possibly encouraged by Olympians

Panhellenism

Idea of the Greek community, bound through shared religion, language, culture, and common ancestry. Defined in opposition to the barbarian (Persian 'other')

↳ decadence, excessive luxury, unmanliness, cruelty, lack of reason, despotism

- Reality check when Spartans/ greeks use Persian support

Trojan War

Alexander = Donation of his Arms to Athena in exchange for Trojan War arms

↳ Highly symbolic ritual act

↳ Deliberate connection to the heroes of this war (Achilles)

Protesilaus

• A mythical hero = Greek (first casualty in the invasion of Troy)

• Highly symbolic ritual act = Sacrifice in Elaius

Argianians

javelin men used in light infantry

Prodromoi

- light cavalry for quick transport for scouting (went ahead)

- scouts armed with lances

Companion Cavalry

• elite horsemen who fought close to the king

• position of honour

• Heavy cavalry used as shock troops (wedge formation)

Ilae

squadrons in Companion cavalry

Taxeis

Battalions of Macedonian infantry

• groups of pezhetairoi in the phalanx

Battle of Granicus

Persians = used natural obstacles to rebuff Alexander's attack

Alexander = Frontal assault at the strongest point (use Prodromoi)

= disrupt the Persian line, drawing them downriver (pawn sacrifice)

= Companion Cavalry + light troops to smash through Persian cavalry defence

= Macedonian phalanx and cavalry defence (left wing)

=fought like an infantry engagement

= Alex leads charge, nearly killed (Cleitus from Spirhtridates saves)

= Victory over Persian cavalry (striking faces of men and forces with lances while light troops intertwined with Companion cavalry)

Battle of Issus

= Alexander attacks on the right (cavalry charge causes Darius to flee)

= Phalanx, cavalry (L), and infantry perform holding roles (RF)

= Heavy infantry - 2nd role

= Light infantry - tactical purposes

= Cavalry - decisive force in battle

= Combined arms; close cooperation between different arms (In contrast to Darius III)

Oracle of Siwa

= Pothos to visit the oracle (Irrational drive)

= Consultation of the Ammon Oracle at the Siwa Oasis

= Cartlege - pragmatic, mystical, or a combination

= Arrian - secure more knowledge of his affairs

Siege of Tyre

= Tyre refuses to let Alex make a sacrifice to Melqart

= Strategic importance of Tyre

= 800 m long, as long as a counter to Tyre

= Phoenician and Cypriot fleet joined Alexander

= Siege engines on the mole and on ships

= Breach of walls and sack of the city (some rescued by sidonians)