Anatomy and Physiology Review - Dental, Directional, and Endocrine Systems

Flashcards generated for partial exam review covering dental formulas and terminology, anatomical planes and directional terms, body cavities, and detailed endocrine system anatomy and physiology.

What is the dental formula and total tooth count for a dog (Perro)?

$$2\,(\text{I } 3/3, \text{C } 1/1, \text{PM } 4/4, \text{M } 2/3) = 42\text{ teeth}$$

What is the dental formula and total tooth count for a horse (Caballo)?

$$2\,(\text{I } 3/3, \text{C } 1/1, \text{PM } 3-4/3, \text{M } 3/3) = 40/42\text{ teeth}$$

What is the dental formula and total tooth count for a cow (Vaca)?

$$2\,(\text{I } 0/4, \text{C } 0/0, \text{PM } 3/3, \text{M } 3/3) = 32\text{ teeth}$$

What is the dental formula and total tooth count for a cat (Gato)?

$$2\,(\text{I } 3/3, \text{C } 1/1, \text{PM } 3/2, \text{M } 1/1) = 30\text{ teeth}$$

What is the dental formula and total tooth count for a rabbit (Conejo)?

$$2\,(\text{I } 2/1, \text{C } 0/0, \text{PM } 3/2, \text{M } 3/3) = 28\text{ teeth}$$

In dental terminology, what do the directional terms "coronal" and "apical" mean?

"Coronal" refers to everything moving in the direction of the crown, while "apical" refers to everything moving in the direction of the root.

What is the difference between lingual and palatal tooth surfaces?

The lingual surface is the inner face of the lower teeth, whereas the palatal surface is the inner face of the upper teeth.

In the Triadan Modified System (TMS), what numbers designate the four permanent dental quadrants?

Maxillary right = 100, Maxillary left = 200, Mandibular left = 300, and Mandibular right = 400.

In the Triadan Modified System (TMS), what numbers designate the four deciduous dental quadrants?

Maxillary right = 500, Maxillary left = 600, Mandibular left = 700, and Mandibular right = 800.

How does the sagittal plane differ from the medial plane?

The sagittal plane divides the animal body into left and right parts (not necessarily equal), whereas the medial plane divides it into equal left and right halves.

Which anatomical plane divides the animal into dorsal and ventral portions?

The dorsal plane.

What do the anatomical directional terms "palmar" and "plantar" designate?

Palmar refers to the bottom part of the front paws, and plantar refers to the bottom part of the hind paws.

What structures compose the cranial cavity?

The brain (Cerebro) and the spinal cord (Medula Espinal / columna vertebral).

How do the parietal membrane and pleura function in the thoracic cavity?

The parietal membrane covers the entire thorax, while the pleura is a membrane that covers only the lungs as a whole.

What is the difference between the peritoneum and the visceral membrane in the abdominal cavity?

The peritoneum protects all abdominal organs in set/as a whole, while a visceral membrane covers each organ individually.

What are the main functional differences between endocrine and exocrine glands?

Endocrine glands release hormones into the blood or interstitial fluid without ducts. Exocrine glands release products into specific locations and generally utilize ducts.

What are the key chemical and functional characteristics of peptide hormones?

They are amino acid chains, generally hydrophilic (water-soluble), travel dissolved in blood plasma, cannot easily cross cell membranes, and bind to cell membrane receptors.

What are the key chemical and functional characteristics of steroid hormones?

They are cholesterol-derived lipids, hydrophobic, require transport proteins in blood, bind to intracellular receptors (in cytoplasm or nucleus), and can modify gene activity.

How do catecholamines and thyroid hormones differ in solubility and receptor locations?

Catecholamines (e.g., adrenaline, noradrenaline) are hydrophilic, travel dissolved in plasma, and bind to membrane receptors. Thyroid hormones ($T_3$, $T_4$) are hydrophobic, require transport proteins, and bind to intracellular receptors.

What is the functional distinction between free and bound hormones in blood circulation?

Free (unbound) hormones are not attached to proteins and can enter tissues to exert biological effects, whereas bound hormones are attached to transport proteins.

How does negative feedback regulate thyroid hormone production?

The hypothalamus stimulates the pituitary gland to release TSH, which prompts the thyroid to produce thyroid hormones. When sufficient thyroid hormone accumulates, it signals to decrease stimulation of both the hypothalamus and pituitary.

How does oxytocin exemplify positive feedback during parturition?

Uterine contractions trigger oxytocin release, which causes stronger contractions, releasing even more oxytocin in a escalating loop that continues until birth occurs.

How do reaction speed and duration of effect compare between the nervous system and endocrine system?

The nervous system produces rapid responses with short duration, while the endocrine system produces slower responses with long-lasting effects.

What anatomical structure serves as the main bridge between the nervous system and endocrine system?

The hypothalamus.

Why is the anterior pituitary gland referred to as the "master gland"?

Because many of the hormones it secretes control the activity of other endocrine glands.

How do releasing and inhibiting factors reach the anterior pituitary gland from the hypothalamus?

Through a specialized network of small blood vessels called the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system.

What are the roles of FSH and LH in females vs. males?

In females, FSH stimulates ovarian follicle growth and estrogen production, while LH surge triggers ovulation. In males, FSH aids sperm production, while LH stimulates testicles to produce testosterone.

How does the posterior pituitary gland differ from the anterior pituitary in terms of hormone production?

The posterior pituitary does NOT synthesize hormones; it only stores ADH and oxytocin produced by specialized neurons in the hypothalamus and releases them upon nerve impulses.

What is the physiological role of Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) during dehydration?

When dehydration is detected by the hypothalamus, ADH secretion increases, causing kidneys to reabsorb more water back into the blood, resulting in concentrated urine.

Which endocrine cells of the pancreatic islets produce glucagon, insulin, and somatostatin, and what are their functions?

Alpha ($\alpha$) cells produce glucagon (increases blood glucose), Beta ($\beta$) cells produce insulin (decreases blood glucose), and Delta ($\delta$) cells produce somatostatin (inhibits various hormone secretions).

What unique anatomical feature characterizes the thyroid gland compared to other endocrine glands?

It is the only endocrine gland that stores a large amount of hormone precursor (in the colloid of its follicles) for later use.

What is the calorigenic effect of thyroid hormones ($T_3$ and $T_4$)?

They regulate cellular metabolism and heat production; cold environments trigger increased thyroid activity to produce heat and maintain body temperature.

Which structures in the testes produce sperm and testosterone, respectively?

Seminiferous tubules produce sperm, while interstitial cells (stimulated by LH/ICSH) produce testosterone.

What structure forms after ovulation to produce progesterone, and what is its main function?

The empty ovarian follicle transforms into the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone to prepare the uterus and maintain pregnancy.

What is the physiological role of relaxin during late pregnancy?

It relaxes and softens pelvic ligaments surrounding the birth canal to prepare the body for childbirth.