Sensation, Perception, and Learning Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards generated from lecture notes covering Sensation, Perception, Classical Conditioning, and Operant Conditioning.

Sensation

The process by which sense organs gather information and energy is converted to neural signals via transduction.

Transduction

The process in sensation where physical energy is converted into neural signals.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum energy detected $50\%$ of the time.

Difference Threshold

Also known as the just noticeable difference; the minimum change in energy detected $50\%$ of the time.

Weber's Law

The principle that the threshold for detecting a change is a constant fraction of the original stimulus.

Stevens's Power Law

A law stating that perceived intensity is equal to physical intensity, but raised or lowered to some constant power.

Wavelength

The distance in one cycle of a wave, from one crest to the next, which determines perceptions of color.

Amplitude

The amount of energy in a wave (its intensity), measured as the height of the wave at its crest, which determines brightness in light waves.

Frequency

The number of times the waveform cycles in $1\,s$.

Cornea

The clear, tough covering on the front of the eye that starts bending the light waves that will eventually be focused on the retina.

Pupil

A tiny hole through which light waves enter the eye.

Iris

A colored muscle that gives eyes their color and controls the size of the pupil, determining how much light enters.

Retina

A layer of cells at the back of the eyeball that converts light into nerve signals and sends them along the optic nerve to the brain.

Rods

Photoreceptor cells in the retina principally responsible for dim light and achromatic (colorless) vision, totaling about $120\text{ million}$ per eye.

Cones

Photoreceptor cells centrally located in the retina responsible for bright light and color vision, totaling about $6\text{ million}$ per eye.

Fovea

A central area of the retina packed with cones where objects should be focused for sharp vision in normal or bright light.

Trichromatic Process Theory

A theory proposing that perceived color results from an additive mixture of short (blueish), medium (greenish), and long (reddish) wavelengths.

Opponent Process Theory

A theory of color vision based on three opposing post-receptor systems: Red-green, Blue-yellow, and Black-white.

Afterimage

A lingering image or impression of a visual stimulus, often appearing as a silhouette or shape in different colors or shades.

Pinna

The external part of the ear that collects sounds and funnels them through the auditory canal to the tympanic membrane.

Tympanic Membrane

Also known as the eardrum; marks the boundary between the outer ear and middle ear and vibrates when sound waves hit it.

Place Theory

An auditory theory assuming that a specific place along the basilar membrane, starting from the oval window, responds maximally to a particular frequency.

Frequency Theory

An auditory theory assuming that the frequency of the sound wave is mimicked by the firing rate of hair cells across the entire basilar membrane.

Contextual Effect

The influence of the situational context on the active process of perception.

Perceptual Set

The influence of past experience, expectation, belief, and culture on how sensory input is interpreted.

Bottom-up Processing

Perceptual processing that starts with raw sensory data from the environment and builds up to a complete perception.

Top-down Processing

Perceptual processing that uses prior knowledge, expectations, and context to interpret incoming sensory input.

Figure-and-ground Principle

A Gestalt principle where the brain organizes sensory input into a figure (the center of attention) and ground (the less distinct background).

Closure

A Gestalt principle referring to the tendency to complete (close) incomplete figures to form meaningful objects.

Perceptual Constancy

The perceptual stability of size, shape, brightness, and color for familiar objects seen under varying distances, angles, and lighting conditions.

Retinal Disparity

A depth perception cue where an increase in disparity (difference) between two retinal images signals a decrease in distance.

Linear Perspective

A depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance.

Interposition

A depth cue where an object that partially blocks the view of another object is perceived as closer.

Classical Conditioning

Learning in which one stimulus reliably signals the arrival of another stimulus.

Ivan Pavlov

Researcher who discovered classical conditioning accidentally when noticing dogs salivated before food was placed in their mouths during digestion research.

John B. Watson

Researcher who unethically demonstrated conditioned fear responses on an infant in the Little Albert study.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

The stimulus in a reflex that automatically elicits an unconditioned response.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The response in a reflex that is automatically elicited by the unconditioned stimulus.

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that does not naturally elicit the to-be-conditioned response in classical conditioning.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The stimulus that comes to elicit a new response (the conditioned response) through learning in classical conditioning.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus in classical conditioning.

Acquisition (Classical Conditioning)

In classical conditioning, the process of acquiring a new response (the conditioned response) to the conditioned stimulus.

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

The diminishing of the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery (Classical Conditioning)

A partial recovery in strength of the conditioned response following a break during extinction training.

Stimulus Generalization (Classical Conditioning)

The elicitation of the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination (Classical Conditioning)

The evoking of the conditioned response only by the conditioned stimulus or a small set of highly similar stimuli.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

A type of classical conditioning where a specific food or taste is associated with subsequent illness, causing a lasting involuntary aversion.

Operant Conditioning

Learning to associate behaviors with their consequences, such that reinforced behaviors are strengthened and punished behaviors are weakened.

Positive Reinforcement

Reinforcement in which an ideal stimulus is presented following a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcement in which an aversive stimulus is removed following a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Punishment in which an aversive stimulus is presented following a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Punishment in which an appetitive stimulus is removed following a behavior.

Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that is innately reinforcing.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing properties through learning.

Continuous Schedule of Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired operant response each time it is made.

Partial Schedule of Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired operant response only part of the time.

Fixed-ratio Schedule

A partial schedule of reinforcement where a reinforcer is delivered each time a fixed number of responses (greater than one) is made.

Variable-ratio Schedule

A partial schedule of reinforcement where the number of responses required to obtain a reinforcer varies per trial but averages to a set number.

Fixed-interval Schedule

A partial schedule of reinforcement where a reinforcer is delivered after the first response given once a set interval of time has elapsed.

Variable-interval Schedule

A partial schedule of reinforcement where the time that must elapse before a response yields a reinforcer varies, but averages to a set time.

Shaping

A technique used to teach a new, complex behavior by rewarding small, progressive steps that get closer to the final goal.

Drive-reduction Theory

A motivation theory proposing that behavior is motivated to reduce drives created by unsatisfied bodily needs to return to a balanced internal state.

Incentive Theory

A motivation theory proposing that behavior is motivated by external stimuli (incentives) associated with reinforcement.

Arousal Theory

A motivation theory proposing that behavior is motivated to maintain an optimal level of physiological arousal.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

A law stating that increasing arousal up to an optimal level increases performance quality, but increasing arousal past that point impairs performance.

Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for external reinforcement.

Intrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake.

Overjustification Effect

A decrease in intrinsically motivated behavior after that behavior is extrinsically reinforced and then the reinforcement is discontinued.

Self-determination Theory

A motivation theory asserting that human growth and motivation are driven by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and relatedness.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so.

Observational Learning

Also known as modeling; learning by observing others and imitating their behavior.