Cardiovascular, Respiratory, Renal, and Reproductive Pathophysiology and Pharmacology

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering cardiovascular pathophysiology, respiratory disorders, renal mechanisms, and associated pharmacologic therapies.

Virchow's Triad

The three physiological states that lead to clot formation: venous stasis, hypercoagulability, and vascular injury.

Preload

A cardiac phase that occurs when the heart relaxes and the ventricles fill up with blood.

Afterload

The amount of force or resistance the heart must exert during pumping to eject blood into circulation.

Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System (RAAS)

A hormonal cascade that raises blood pressure by retaining sodium and water through the sequential actions of renin, angiotensinogen, angiotensin $1$, angiotensin $2$, and aldosterone.

Aldosterone

A hormone released by the adrenal glands that instructs the kidneys to retain sodium and water while excreting potassium, additionally stimulating thirst and ADH release.

Primary Hypertension

The form of hypertension accounting for most cases, primarily linked to underlying risk factors rather than a separate medical condition.

Secondary Hypertension

High blood pressure directly attributable to other underlying diseases or conditions.

Atherosclerosis

A vascular condition characterized by fatty plaque buildup within the arterial walls.

Furosemide (Lasix)

A loop diuretic that inhibits sodium and chloride reabsorption in the loop of Henle and distal loop for rapid diuresis, with cautions for ototoxicity, electrolyte imbalances, and morning administration.

Spironolactone

A potassium-sparing diuretic that blocks aldosterone to promote sodium elimination into the urine, carrying a contraindication to foods high in potassium.

Mannitol

An intravenous osmotic diuretic that pulls water into the renal tubules without sodium loss, utilized in cases of cerebral edema, acute renal failure, and shock.

Acetazolamide

A carbonic anhydrase inhibitor that alters the body's acid-base balance rather than purely flushing out salt and water.

Dihydropyridines

A subcategory of calcium channel blockers (including amlodipine and nifedipine) that specifically targets and relaxes blood vessels.

Non-dihydropyridines

Calcium channel blockers (such as verapamil and diltiazem) that act directly on and relax both the heart and blood vessels.

Cardio-selective Beta Blockers

Medications (including metoprolol and atenolol) that selectively inhibit beta-$1$ receptors, blocking norepinephrine and epinephrine to reduce heart rate.

Non-selective Beta Blockers

Medications (such as propranolol and carvedilol) that inhibit both beta-$1$ and beta-$2$ receptors, causing bronchoconstriction and making them contraindicated in patients with asthma disorders.

Prazosin (Minipress)

An alpha-$1$ adrenergic blocker that relaxes arterial smooth muscle in the bladder and urethra, with adverse effects including orthostatic hypotension, reflex tachycardia, and erectile dysfunction.

Hydralazine

A direct arterial vasodilator that decreases afterload, thereby lowering cardiac workload and reducing the resistance against which the heart must pump.

Lisinopril

An ACE inhibitor that prevents the conversion of angiotensin $1$ to angiotensin $2$, noted for side effects including a dry persistent cough, angioedema, and hyperkalemia.

Losartan

An angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB) that blocks angiotensin II receptors in vascular smooth muscle and the adrenal cortex, preventing vasoconstriction and aldosterone release.

Ventilation ($V$)

The physical process of bringing air and oxygen into the lungs.

Perfusion ($Q$)

The flow of blood reaching the pulmonary capillaries where gas exchange takes place and oxygen enters the circulation.

Central Chemoreceptors

Receptors that detect carbon dioxide levels and acidic pH in the blood, triggering an increase in respiratory rate in response to low pH or hypercapnia ($P\text{CO}_2 > 50$).

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

Receptors that monitor arterial blood oxygen levels, increasing respirations when detecting hypoxia ($P\text{O}_2 < 60$).

Extrinsic Asthma

A reversible airway obstruction triggered by an environmental allergic response, mediated by systemic IgE production, typically beginning in childhood, and linked to the allergic triad.

Intrinsic Asthma

A form of asthma triggered by non-allergic factors such as cold or exercise, marked by local IgE production and onset in adulthood.

Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

An irreversible, chronic airway obstruction characterized by decreased $O_2$ and elevated $\text{CO}_2$, diagnosed when $\text{FEV}_1/\text{FC} < 70\%$, with smoking as its primary cause.

Emphysema

A form of COPD characterized by damage to the alveoli, loss of lung elasticity, air trapping, decreased surface area for gas exchange, and a thin, barrel-chested patient presentation known as "pink puffers".

Chronic Bronchitis

A component of COPD marked by airway inflammation, excessive mucus secretion, chronic cough, and cyanosis, clinically referred to as "blue bloaters".

LABA (Long-Acting Beta-2 Agonist)

Maintenance bronchodilators typically ending in "-terol" (excluding albuterol) that stimulate beta-$2$ adrenergic receptors over a long duration for chronic bronchitis, COPD, and bronchospasm prevention.

SABA (Short-Acting Beta-2 Agonist)

Fast-acting rescue bronchodilators used on an as-needed basis for acute symptom relief during asthma attacks rather than daily maintenance.

Theophylline

A xanthine bronchodilator that acts within the central nervous system to stimulate airway dilation, carrying a narrow therapeutic index that can lead to tonic-clonic seizures.

Montelukast

A leukotriene receptor antagonist used for long-term asthma control by preventing leukotrienes from binding to target receptors in the lungs.

Atelectasis

The collapse of alveoli, commonly occurring postoperatively and prevented through the use of an incentive spirometer.

Guaifenesin

An upper respiratory medication that thins mucus secretions to facilitate productive coughing; requires adequate hydration.

Antitussives

Medications that suppress the cough reflex via central nervous system suppression, contraindicated in patients with head injuries.

Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR)

A clinical measure of how fast the renal glomeruli are filtering fluid, considered abnormal or indicative of renal compromise when falling below $60\,\text{mL/min}$.

Calcitriol

A renal-dependent hormone that assists in converting vitamin D into its active, usable form.

Glomerulonephritis

An inflammation or infection of the renal glomeruli, commonly following a streptococcal infection, presenting with pitting edema, elevated blood pressure, and sore throat.

Hydronephrosis

Excessive accumulation and backup of fluid in the kidneys, typically caused by a downstream urinary tract obstruction.

Acute Kidney Injury (AKI)

A typically reversible renal dysfunction progressing through initiation, oliguric (urine output $< 400\,\text{mL/day}$), diuretic, and recovery stages, often leading to hyperkalemia with peaked T waves.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

A progressive, irreversible decline in renal function divided into $5$ stages by GFR, where a GFR above $90$ denotes the absence of CKD.

Acute Tubular Necrosis (ATN)

Damage to the tubular structures of the nephron resulting from ischemic or nephrotoxic insult, manifested by casts in the urine and pruritus.

Renal Calculi

Stones that form in the renal pelvis or calyces, composed of calcium oxalate, calcium phosphate, uric acid, or struvite.

Phenazopyridine

A non-antibiotic urinary analgesic that provides symptomatic pain relief during a UTI and characteristically discolors urine orange or red; restricted to a maximum course of $2$ days.

Oxybutynin (Ditropan)

An anticholinergic medication used to manage bladder spasms by inhibiting contractions of the urinary tract smooth musculature.

Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia (BPH)

A condition in men involving cellular growth and enlargement of the prostate gland into the urethra, causing nocturia, urgency, urinary straining, and painful voiding.

Finasteride (Proscar)

A pharmacological agent prescribed for benign prostatic hyperplasia that shrinks the prostate gland to restore urine flow.

Tamsulosin (Flomax)

An alpha-$1$ adrenergic antagonist that relaxes smooth muscle in the prostate and bladder neck to improve urinary outflow.