All Material for First Midterm

everything from the establishment of the Republic to the death of Pyrrhus of Epirus

When was Rome first inhabited?

1600 B.C.

When was the mythological founding of Rome?

753 B.C.

When was the Regal Period?

753–509 B.C.

When was the Early Republic?

509–343 B.C.

When were the Samnite Wars and Roman Expansion?

343–264 B.C.

When was the Late Republic, Civil wars, and First Triumvirate?

146–44 B.C.

When was the Fall of the Republic and Second Triumvirate?

44–14 A.D.

When was the Birth of the Roman Empire?

14 A.D. → alternatively w/ Augustus in 27 B.C., but arguable

When was Numa Pompilius elected king by the Curia?

715 B.C.

When was Tullus Hostilius elected king by the Curia?

672 B.C.

When was Ancus Marcius elected king by the Curia?

640 B.C.

When did L. Tarquinius Priscus become regent over Ancus Marcius’ son and get elected king?

616 B.C.

When was Servius Tullus appointed as the next king by Priscus?

578 B.C.

When did L. Tarquinius Superbus seize kingship as a tyrant?

534 B.C.

When was the Rape of Lucretia and overthrow of the monarchy?

509 B.C.

When was the Capitoline Temple dedicated?

12 September 507 B.C.

When was the battle of Lake Regillus?

496 B.C.

When was the Secession of the plebs?

494 B.C.

When was the treaty between Rome and the Latin League?

493 B.C.

When were the decemviri in office?

451–449 B.C.

When were the Veii defeated?

396 B.C.

When was the First Samnite War?

343-341 B.C.

When was the Second Samnite War?

327-304 B.C.

When was the Third Samnite War?

298-290 B.C.

When did Pyrrhus invade Italy and win at Heraclea?

280 B.C.

When did Pyrrhus win at Asculum and leave for Syracuse?

279 B.C. → Pyrrhic victory

When was the battle at Beneventum?

275 B.C.

When did Rome capture Tarentum?

272 B.C.

How long did the interbellum after the Pyrrhic war last?

275-264 B.C. → ends with beginning of First Punic War

What are the Roman numerals up to 1000?

• I - 1

• V - 5

• X - 10

• L - 50

• C - 100

• D - 500

• M - 1000

What is the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus?

• also called Capitoline Temple because it is built on the Capitoline hill

• dedicated to Capitoline Triad → Jupiter, Juno, Minerva

• burns down in 83 B.C., but is rebuilt

• can be used in the dating of the Roman Republic

Who rebuilt the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus after it burnt down in 83 B.C.?

Quintus Lutatius Catulus minor → defeated Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (father of triumvir Lepidus) to prevent Sullan reforms from being repealed and uses the spoils to rebuild the temple

Who built the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus?

Started under L. Tarquinius Priscus and is devoted to both him and Jupiter, and is eventually finished under L. Tarquinius Superbus

Why does the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus include shrines to Juno and Minerva?

When the temple was built, auguries supposedly indicated that the shrines to Juventas and Terminus should not be moved → Terminus incorporated into Jupiter’s shrine; Juventas still exists but largely syncretised with Juno and Minerva

Why is Minerva part of the Capitoline Triad?

• Syncretised with Juventas

• also because of the nails that marked years in the temple → Minerva is goddess that created numbers/counting

How is the temple of Jupiter Maximus Optimus useful for dating Rome?

• temple was built around the time the Republic began

• on the Ides of September every year a nail/ring would be placed → counting with rings on nails likely from the Etruscans

• Romans could therefore count the nails/rings and know how long it had been → they likely knew the approximate actual date of founding

• Flavius writes on an inscription from 304/5 in a temple to Concord that it was built 449 years after the foundation of Rome and 204 years after the temple to Jupiter → 304 + 449 = 753; 305 + 204 = 509

From where did Romans likely get the practice of counting years with nails and rings?

The Etruscans:

• Livy says nails were used at the Etruscan temple of Nortia in Volsinii → Nortia also syncretises with Minerva, meaning it is likely that they inherited the tradition at the same time

• also says when explaining the practice that it comes from an “ancient law in antique letters and words” → probably Etruscan

• associated between rings and years built into Latin, with ring being annulus and a year being annus → probably pre-dates Latin

• evidence of Etruscan art that depicts nails and rings being used

What is the rough story of the mythological founding of Rome?

• Rhea Silva (Vestal Virgin) is raped by Mars and gives birth to twins Romulus and Remus

• then king Amulius orders the twins to be thrown into the Tiber, but they are instead exposed → get rescued

• go on to remove Amulius and put Numitor on the throne, who allows them to establish their own city

• argue over whether it should be on the Palatine or Aventine → competing auguries; Remus sees 6 birds first but Romulus sees 12 in total

• in dispute, Romulus kills Remus, supposedly for crossing the pomerium

• not a true story → reality probably starts with Lucius Tarquinius Priscus with everything before that being mythology

Who builds the Circus Maximus?

Lucius Tarquinius Priscus

How do L. Tarquinius Superbus and Sextus Tarquinius meet Lucretia?

Collatinus (Lucretia’s husband) brings them to his house to stay and introduces them → common for elites to stay with each other when travelling; not suspect when Sextus is there without Collatinus

How does Sextus threaten Lucretia and why is it significant?

• first threatens her with death → doesn’t work

• then threatens to leave the naked body of a murdered enslaved man beside her → threat of dishonour is considered worse than that of death

• dishonour would reflect not just on Lucretia, but her entire family

Why is it significant that Collatinus was not aware of Sextus’ coming back to his house?

• a prince visiting would be special and it would benefit both Sextus and Collatinus to have the visit be known

• the only reason Sextus would hide it is if he were doing something he didn’t want Collatinus to know about → shows he was planning to rape Lucretia and knew it was wrong

• added layer that harming a host/guest was sacreligious

What did Lucretia do after Sextus had left?

• sends for Collatinus and her father, who arrive with friend Lucius Junius Brutus → we don’t know why Brutus is there

• they find her in her room where she tells them what Sextus had done and then kills herself with a knife she had hidden under her clothes

• origin of noble suicide → in Roman view, it is better to die than face dishonour; Lucretia did the noble thing to save her and her family from shame

How does Brutus react to hearing of Sextus’ raping Lucretia?

• says he will have vengeance on the Tarquins (Superbus and Sextus)

• brings Lucretia’s body to be seen by public who all begin to share their complaints about the rulers

• usually, the complaints would be shameful, but in comparison with what has happened to Lucretia, it is acceptable

How are the Tarquins overthrown by Brutus?

• Brutus raises army of discontented citizens → Livy notes many youth being part of this army

• march to Rome, but avoid Superbus and don’t actually have a battle → usually would be seen as cowardly

• essentially sneak into Rome behind Superbus and close the gates, locking them out → people within Rome must have been sympathetic to Brutus/disliked Superbus already

• Tarquins are then exiled

How does L. Tarquinius Superbus react to being exiled by Brutus?

• goes to Lars Porsenna (Etruscan king) and raises own army to go to Rome → including support from Veii

• stories of Horatius Cocles and Mucius Cordus Scaevola → Cocles prevents Etruscans from crossing bridge over the Tiber; Scaevola fails to kill Porsenna but convinces him to withdraw by burning off his hand in a show of Roman resolve

• marks the end of Etruscan kings in Rome as well as the last time Romans associated themselves with the Etruscans

Why do the Romans stop calling themselves Etruscan after 509 B.C.?

• propaganda → by calling the Tarquins Etruscan they are suggesting their being un-Roman and distancing the rape of Lucretia from Rome

• likely also due to this being when Rome leaves the Etruscan League → overthrowing the rex wasn’t just getting rid of the monarchy, it was rejecting the Etruscans

• for Brutus, helps legitimise his actions and overthrow of the Tarquins, especially since he acted without approval from the comitia curiata → also that he brought an army into Rome

How does Rome’s geography relate to its early influences?

It is positioned right on the border between Etruria and Latium

How do the Etruscans come into contact with Rome?

• Etruscans around by the 8-900s and begin expansion after this point

• 753 is likely the date when the Etruscans came to Rome

• possibly came by elite transfer → being accepted by the people in order to avoid conflict

• also possibility of Celtic migration, Celtic being a loose term → interchangeable with Gauls at this point

• Romans essentially become Latin-speaking Etruscans → adopt Etruscan culture, but Etruria does not have enough force to impose a language change

What are some indications of overlap between Etruscan and Roman culture/society?

• story of Romulus → name connected with Rumelna family in Volsinii and the Etruscan praenomen Rumele

• white and red robe used by Etruscans becomes the Roman toga

• both are military aristocracies

• triumph is Etruscan and then adopted by Romans

• symbols of rex’s authority are shared → golden crown, gold/purple robe, fasces, sella curulis (throne)

• practice of voting in rex yearly in Etruria → carries to magistrates in the Republic

• pomerium comes from Etruscans

• ancient knife with early Latin inscription → reads right to left and uses Etruscan ‘T’

Were the Roman rex actually kings?

Probably not:

• voted upon yearly but senatus/comitia curiata → odd for a king

• closer to a representative for Rome to the Latin League

• a sort of warlord; very tied to warrior culture → same for the Etruscans

• when Rome leaves the Etruscan League in 509, they no longer have need for the representative → part of reason for not electing a new rex

Around what is Roman society structured at the beginning of the Republic?

The family, particularly the pater familias

What is the familia?

The family, which would include the mater and pater familias, any unmarried children, any children that have married into the family, and anybody adopted → no legal distinction between blood-related vs. adopted

What are the clientes?

Citizens that fell under a familia’s protection (legal, policing, etc.), but were not actually a part of it → could include people both enslaved and freed who especially needed protection

What is the pater familia?

The head of a family, usually the eldest male member (not always the father) → had complete legal authority, determined marriages, controlled inheritance, adopted/disowned, and could even have family members executed

What are the gentes?

Clans/groups of familias, usually of a shared/similar lineage → each has their own religious/legal communities and military forces

What is the comitia curiata?

An Etruscan and early Roman committee that would choose or re-confirm a high-ranking leader

• for Etruscans, the rex; for Romans, any office with imperium

• would consider the will of the gods through the augurs and haruspex → augurs release and study birds, often related to Jupiter; haruspex studies liver of sacrificed animals

• when appointing a rex, the comitia would actually choose an interrex who would then choose the next rex

• all members a part of the warrior class

What is the senatus?

• from senex, meaning old man

• body that advised the rex or officers

• made up of patres

• after the rex is gone, the senatus would put forwards the candidates for offices that the comitia curiata would then approve → more than just advisory

• as the heads of all the warriors, the patres were crucial to maintaining Rome → need to keep them happy

What is a patres?

Male member of the senatus who is also a pater familia

Who are the patricus, plebes, and equites?

• patricus → patrician; warriors who are related to a pater senatus

• plebes → plebeian; warriors who are not related to a pater senatus

• equites → cavalry; likely very wealthy, but not an actual class yet

What is the populus?

The warrior citizen-body

What are the tribus?

The three tribes between which the populus are divided, with each tribe having 10 curiae → Ramnes, Tities, Luceres

What was a curiae?

A gathering of warriors, supposedly composed of 10 cavalry and 100 warriors → 10 curiae per tribe

How does Rome initially organise their military?

They use the phalanx, as did the Etruscans → not as polished as the Greek phalanx and suffers from the same problems

How was the phalanx problematic for the Romans?

• very little mobility → only really works on flat terrain, which is inconvenient in Italy where there are many forests

• vulnerable on the sides and useless if ranks are broken

• heavy losses would decimate the economy → are using citizen-soldiers, so their dying meant no more farmers

How did Aristotle describe the phalanx?

• overstated its importance

• highlighted the significance of the cavalry → true, when trained they were very powerful, but they were not central to the phalanx

• references the political ramifications of the organisation → also true

• suggests that the phalanx did not use any tactics → ridiculous

What offices are created after the rex is removed?

• Praetors, including the praetor maximus

• Magister populi

• Magister equitum

• Tribuni militum

What were the praetors?

They were the two highest offices elected yearly that replaced the rex, the leader being the praetor maximus who may have been a sort of early dictator → we assume there were two based on the use of maximus and later consuls

What are the magister populi and magister equitum?

Masters of the infantry and cavalry → probably only elected during conflicts and were put forwards by the Senate and confirmed by the comitia curiata

What was the tribuni militum?

• tribune of warriors that help govern Rome from 426-367

• initially, the commanders of the tribes (hence tribune, from tribus) but eventually just oversee the supplying/equipping and administration of warriors

• may have included both patricians and plebeians

Were the augurs and haruspex part of the comitia curiata?

No, they were just associated → separation between state and religion despite the two being intertwined

How was the comitia curiata related to religion?

• use of augurs and haruspex

• by the 5th century, they would swear an oath to the gods for the protection of the elected magistrates → becomes sacrosanctitas

• religion was used to keep people in check → discourages corruption and maintains order

How do the comitia curiata and senatus indicate the domination of patricians/pater familias at the beginning of the Republic?

They were the ones entirely in control of how the Roman state functioned, without any input from the plebeians and non-warriors → particularly true for the pater familias; powers are reduced with the 12 Tables

What are the 12 sections of the Twelve Tables?

Judicial:

• I - Proceedings before trial

• II - Trial Procedures

• III - Judgement on debts

Family law:

• IV - Patriarchal powers

• V - Inheritance and guardianship

Property/person:

• VI - Ownership and Possession

• VII - Land rights

• VIII - Laws of injury

Conduct:

• IX - Public law

• X - Funeral rites

Supplements:

• XI - Supplement: marriage

• XII - Supplement: punishments

What are the 5 laws under table I: Proceedings before Trial of the Twelve Tables?

• Accused must attend court

• In case of age/sickness accuser shall grant transportation

• A witness can stand in for the accused

• Evading court can lead to forced appearance

• If both parties are present proceedings will end at sunset

What are the 2 laws under table II: Trial Procedures of the Twelve Tables?

• Severe illness of any party may delay trial

• Party needings witness or evidence may call the home of the witness every 3rd day

What are the 4 laws under table III: Judgements on Dest of the Twelve Tables?

• 30 days allowed for confessed debt payment

• If unpaid, creditor can keep debtor in chains no heavier than 15 lbs.

• 60 days allowed to reach compromise

• Unresolved debt leads to debtor’s execution or sale into slavery across the Tiber

What are the 4 laws under table IV: Patriarchal Powers of the Twelve Tables?

• Deformed child shall be killed at birth

• Father has authority over children’s lives

• Son cannot be bought again after being sold into slavery 3 times by the father

• Husband can divorce wife by instructing her to take her belongings and leave

What are the 3 law under table V: Inheritance and Guardianship of the Twelve Tables?

• Women (excl. Vestal Virgins) always under guardianship due to frivolity of character

• Reckless spenders can’t manage his possessions. Nearest male relative has authority over insane individuals

• Estate of one without direct male heir goes to nearest male relative in the male lineage

What are the 3 laws under table VI: Ownership and Possession of the Twelve Tables?

• Verbal promises are binding

• Continuous cohabitation for 1 year is considered marriage

• Open and continuous land use for 2 years grant ownership claim (1 year for other things)

What are the 3 laws under table VII: Land Rights of the Twelve Tables?

• Disrepair allows travellers to choose alternate route on road built by someone on his land

• Fallen tree from neighbour’s farm can be rightfully removed

• Fruits falling from one’s trees onto neighbour’s land can be kept by the neighbour

What are the 4 laws under table VIII: Laws of Injury of the Twelve Tables?

• Creating incantations leads to execution by clubbing

• Injuring another results in reciprocal injury or compensation

• False testimony leads to being thrown from the Tarpelan Rock

• Nighttime gatherings within the city are prohibited

What are the 4 laws under table IX: Public Law of the Twelve Tables?

• Laws must not be made or decided secretly or exclusively

• Laws of personal exceptions and privileges are forbidden

• Judges accepting bribes for decisions face execution

• No one should be executed without proven guilt in court

What are the 4 laws under table X: Funeral Rites of the Twelve Tables?

• No burial or burning of dead in the city (within pomerium)

• No gathering of bones for second funeral, except for death in battle or abroad

• Prohibition on excessive drinking and displays of wealth

• Adorning corpse with gold is forbidden, excluding existing gold dental work

What are the 3 laws under table XI: Supplement to Marriage of the Twelve Tables?

• Intermarriage of plebeians and patricians prohibited

• Soldiers must delay marriage until completing training

• Regulations set for permissible days of legal proceedings and judgements

What are the 3 laws under table XII: Supplement to Punishments of the Twelve Tables?

• Decisions and enactments by the Roman people are legally binding

• False accusers face double penalty or death

• Eight forms of punishment: fines; shackles; flogging; Lex talionis (reciprocal injury); public humiliation; exile; enslavement; execution

Before the Twelve Tables, why were people displeased over the rights of the patres’?

They controlled everything → patricians had no control over their own lives and plebeians had no social mobility/access to politics

How does the militarisation of war lead to the threat of stasis?

Plebeians are becoming very wealthy from looting after battles → some even more wealthy than patricians, but still without any ability to hold office

How did Rome militarising in the 400s change the power dynamics of the state?

The army expanded, and as the army expanded, the power of the family shrunk while the power of the individual magistrates who controlled armies grew

What was the comitia centuriata?

• assembly of 193 centurions

• either patrician or plebeians, but still the wealthiest

• deals with issues for both classes

• elects magistrates previously chosen by the comitia curiata

• first fully Roman committee, the other having been mostly copied from the Etruscans

What was the concilium plebis?

• council of plebeian warriors

• formed in 494 B.C.

• especially concerned with regulating nexum (debt slavery)

• chose the tribunes of the tribuni plebis

What was the tribuni plebis?

10 tribunes selected from the concilium plebis who were given veto power

What was nexum?

Debt slavery, where a plebeian in debt to a patrician would be enslaved to work off their debt → because they are enslaved, the patrician would often just sell them into slavery elsewhere where they would never be freed

What was stasis?

Severe civil war between the two orders (patrician and plebeian) that was threatened throughout the Struggle of the Orders, especially leading up to the Twelve Tables

What were the decemviri?

• only non-military governing office at this time

• officers appointed from 451-449 B.C. in order to create the Twelve Tables

• could have included both patricians and plebeians

Who was Appius Claudius Crassus Inregillensis Sabinus (Appius Claudius)?

• decemvir that became very powerful

• supposed to have kidnapped a woman called Verginia and claimed she was enslaved, leading to her father Verginius stabbing her to protect her honour

• was arrested and committed suicide

What can be learned by examining the laws of the Twelve Tables?

• many laws indicate how plebeians were being exploited → severe illness delaying trial suggests that plebs were being found guilty if they could not show up to court due to sickness

• laws also are specific to plebeian issues, not just patrician ones → being able to collect a neighbour’s fallen fruit

• shows restrictions on the rights of women potentially coming from increased culture exchange with the Greeks and Latins → previously did not need guardians

• still shows the exploitation of plebeians despite some progress → 2 year land ownership could be abused by patricians to steal land

When does the Struggle of the Orders crescendo again after the Twelve Tables?

• by 375 B.C. plebeians have still been growing wealthier from war without gaining rights

• many parts of the Twelve Tables had been repealed or were being ignored → senatus and concilium plebis are disputing over rights

• tribuni plebis threaten to lead the plebeians in a secessio, which they do in 367 B.C.

What was the secessio of the Plebeians?

• in 367 B.C. the tribuni plebis led the plebeians in a secession, leaving Rome

• is a major threat of war → the bulk of the warrior class have all just left Rome without protection and could easily then siege the city (pomerium isn’t definite protection)

• leads to the patres conceding in 366 and creating the Lex Licinia Sextia

What was the Lex Licinia Sextia?

• law created in 366 B.C. after the Secession of the Plebs

• introduces the consuls, which would be elected yearly and should be one patrician, one plebeian

• transfers the imperium of the tribuni militum to the consuls

• at the same time, a temple to Concordia is built in the forum and the story of Romulus and Remus is popularised (did already exist, just popularised)