Psychology: Thinking Critically With Psychological Science (Modules 1–3)

A complete set of vocabulary flashcards covering key terms and concepts from Modules 1–3 of Psychology.

Scientific Attitude

A mindset incorporating curiosity (asking 'does it work?'), skepticism ('what do you mean? how do you know?'), and humility ('willingness to be surprised and follow new ideas').

Critical Thinking

Smart thinking that examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.

Wilhelm Wundt

German psychologist who established psychology's first laboratory and sought to measure 'atoms of the mind.'

Mary Whiton Calkins

Pioneering memory researcher who became the first female president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1905.

Margaret Floy Washburn

Influential author who was the first woman to officially earn a Ph.D. in psychology and served as the second female APA president.

Behaviorism

The view championed by John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner that psychology should be an objective science studying observable behavior without reference to inner mental processes.

Psychoanalytic Psychology

Psychological perspective developed by Sigmund Freud emphasizing how unconscious mind processes and childhood experiences affect behavior.

Humanistic Psychology

Historically significant perspective led by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow that emphasized human growth potential, emotional needs for love and acceptance, and nurturing environments.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using Charles Darwin's principles of natural selection.

Natural Selection

The principle that inherited traits enabling better survival and reproduction in a particular environment will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.

Behavior Genetics

The study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on individual differences in behavior and psychological traits.

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing, championed by Martin Seligman, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive.

Biopsychosocial Approach

An integrated framework incorporating biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis to explain any given behavior or mental process.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information; also called retrieval practice or test-enhanced learning.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it; also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

Prebunking

Psychological inoculation against misinformation by warning people about incoming misinformation and providing evidence-based counter-information to build critical thinking immunity.

Scientific Method

A self-correcting process for evaluating ideas with observation and analysis, moving between theories, hypotheses, and empirical research.

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures and operations used in a research study to measure target variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to determine whether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Preregistration

Publicly communicating a planned study design, hypotheses, data collection, and statistical analyses prior to starting research.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing and combining the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Case Study

A descriptive research technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic Observation

A descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without attempting to manipulate or control the environment.

Survey

A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, typically by questioning a representative, random sample.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the direction and strength of the relationship between two variables, ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots representing the values of two variables, where the slope indicates the direction and the amount of scatter indicates the strength of correlation.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between variables where none exists, or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship.

Regression Toward the Mean

The statistical tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back or regress toward the average score.

Experiment

A research method in which investigators manipulate one or more independent variables while controlling other factors to observe cause-and-effect relationships on a dependent variable.

Double-Blind Procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether participants received the treatment or a placebo.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone, where any change in behavior is brought about by believing one is receiving an active substance or treatment.

Independent Variable

In an experiment, the factor that is manipulated and whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

In an experiment, the outcome variable that is measured and which may change when the independent variable is manipulated.

Confounding Variable

A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study's results.

Informed Consent

An ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study to its participants, including its purpose and any deceptions involved.

Descriptive Statistics

Numerical data used to measure and summarize the characteristics of a group, including measures of central tendency and variation.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution, computed by adding the scores and dividing by the total number of scores.

Median

The middle score in a distribution, where exactly half the scores fall above it and half fall below it.

Range

A measure of variation calculated as the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much scores differ from the mean score, calculated as $\sqrt{\frac{\text{Sum of (deviations from mean)}^2}{\text{Number of scores} - 1}}$.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution curve where most scores fall near the mean (about $68\%$ within one standard deviation and $95\%$ within two standard deviations).

Inferential Statistics

Numerical data that allow researchers to generalize or infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a broader population.

Statistical Significance

A statistical statement indicating how likely an obtained result occurred by chance, typically evaluated with a $p\text{-value} < 0.05$.

Null Hypothesis

The baseline assumption in statistical testing that no actual difference or relationship exists between the populations being studied.