GENERAL PSYCH100 EXAM 1314tn13u4nt13ot

Psychologyf

The scientific study of thought and behavior (including memory, emotion, prejudice, empathy, and decision making). Psychologists use research and evidence-based practice to understand how and why people and animals think and act as they do.r

Pseudoscience

Practices that appear scientific but do not rely on the scientific method (e.g., astrology). Science changes with new evidence; pseudoscience does not.

Cognitive Psychology

Study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak, and solve problems (e.g., how people visualize objects in their minds).

Developmental Psychology

Study of how thought and behavior change and remain stable across the lifespan (e.g., how reasoning and emotional skills change with age).

Behavioral Neuroscience

Explores links among brain, mind, and behavior.

Biological Psychology

Examines how bodily systems and chemicals influence behavior and thought (e.g., effects of stress hormones).

Personality Psychology

Studies what makes people unique and consistent in behavior across time and situations (e.g., how friendliness or hostility affects health and relationships).

Social Psychology

Examines how real or imagined presence of others influences thoughts, feelings, and behaviors (e.g., attraction, prejudice, persuasion).

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

Applies psychological principles to the workplace and machines (e.g., work efficiency, employee motivation).

Lillian Moller Gilbreth

Pioneer in I/O psychology; studied how to make tasks more efficient and invented devices like foot-pedal trash cans and refrigerator shelves.

Critical Thinking

Ability to analyze facts, evaluate arguments, draw inferences, compare ideas, and form well-reasoned conclusions. Requires questioning assumptions and self-regulating one's thoughts.

Metacognitive Thinking

Thinking about one's own thinking; reflecting on and evaluating one's cognitive processes.

Biopsychosocial Model

Explains behavior and mental health as the result of interacting biological, psychological, and social/environmental factors.

Rationalism (Logic)

Using reason and logic to understand the world; limited because the world does not always behave logically (e.g., Galileo disproving Aristotle).

Empiricism (Observation)

Understanding the world through observation and experience; limited because senses can be deceptive and observations biased.

Theory

A set of related assumptions that explains existing facts and generates testable predictions for future research.

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction derived from a theory about what will happen under particular conditions.

Reliability

Extent to which a measure produces consistent results over time or between observers.

Validity

Extent to which a measure accurately assesses the concept it claims to measure (and not something else).

Correlation

A relationship between two variables showing how one changes with the other; does not prove causation.

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A numerical value (-1.00 to +1.00) indicating strength and direction of a relationship; closer to ±1 = stronger.

Positive vs. Negative Correlation

Positive = variables increase or decrease together; Negative = one increases while the other decreases.

Independent Variable (IV)

The factor manipulated by the researcher to see its effect on the dependent variable.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The measured outcome that changes because of manipulation of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An uncontrolled factor that may influence study results and invalidate causal conclusions.

Random Assignment

Method giving each participant equal chance of being in any group to minimize bias.

Experimental Group vs. Control Group

Experimental group receives the treatment/IV; control group does not (receives no treatment or a placebo).

Placebo

An inactive substance or treatment given to control for participants' expectations.

Single-Blind Study

Participants don't know which condition they're in; reduces expectancy effects.

Double-Blind Study

Neither participants nor researchers know group assignments; prevents bias.

Experimenter Expectancy Effect

When a researcher's expectations influence participants' behavior or data collection.

Demand Characteristics

Cues that signal how participants should act, potentially influencing results.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

When beliefs or expectations cause events to occur in ways that make the expectation come true.

Descriptive Study

Research design defining a problem and observing behavior without manipulation or prediction.

Case Study

Intensive observation of a single individual over time to gain in-depth understanding.

Naturalistic Observation

Unobtrusive observation and recording of behavior in the real world without interference.

Longitudinal Study

Observes same participants over months or years to track changes over time.

Twin-Adoption Study

Compares identical and fraternal twins raised together or apart to separate genetic and environmental influences.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical technique combining results of multiple studies to draw an overall conclusion.

Big Data in Psychology

Massive amounts of information collected from websites and apps, analyzed to study human behavior.

Sampling Error

When observations are not representative of the entire population, leading to biased results.

Question Authority

A scientific attitude of challenging assumptions and asking for evidence rather than accepting claims at face value.

Open Skepticism

A scientific attitude of questioning findings and remaining open to new evidence that may revise previous beliefs.

Intellectual Honesty

Acknowledging when evidence contradicts one's beliefs and reporting data truthfully even if it disproves expectations.

Scientific Method (OPTICR)

The process scientists use to conduct research — Observe, Predict, Test, Interpret, Communicate, Replicate.

Observation (Step 1 of OPTICR)

Identifying phenomena or patterns that need explanation.

Prediction (Step 2 of OPTICR)

Formulating a hypothesis based on theory and observation.

Test (Step 3 of OPTICR)

Designing and conducting experiments or studies to collect data.

Interpretation (Step 4 of OPTICR)

Using statistical analyses to understand what the data mean.

Communication (Step 5 of OPTICR)

Sharing findings publicly so other researchers can evaluate and build upon them.

Replication (Step 6 of OPTICR)

Repeating a study to confirm whether results hold true under similar conditions; essential to the scientific process.

Descriptive Research Design

Defines a problem and variable of interest without predicting or manipulating variables (e.g., surveys, case studies, naturalistic observation).

Experimental Research Design

Uses manipulation of an independent variable and random assignment to test causal relationships.

Correlation ≠ Causation

Correlation shows relationships but cannot determine which variable causes the other or if a third variable is involved.

Third Variable Problem

When two correlated variables may both be influenced by a separate factor (e.g., low self-esteem and depression both caused by trauma).

Gene-by-Environment Interaction Research

Studies how genetic predispositions interact with environmental factors to produce behaviors.

Intellectual Humility

Recognizing that current knowledge may be incomplete or wrong and remaining open to revision.

Chromosomes

Structures made of DNA and proteins found in the nucleus of cells; carry genetic information.

DNA

The molecule containing the genetic code; composed of nucleotides that form genes.

Gene

A small segment of DNA containing information for producing proteins that influence traits.

Genome

The complete set of genetic information in an organism's DNA.

Genotype

The complete set of an organism's genes; its genetic makeup.

Phenotype

The observable characteristics of an organism, determined by genotype and environment.

Allele

Different forms of a gene; can be dominant or recessive.

Dominant Allele

Expresses its trait when only one copy is present.

Recessive Allele

Expresses its trait only when two copies are present (one from each parent).

Polygenic Traits

Traits determined by multiple genes (e.g., skin color, height).

Monogenic Traits

Traits determined by a single gene (e.g., widow's peak, lactose intolerance).

Mutation

A random change in the genetic sequence that can lead to new traits (e.g., lactose tolerance).

Behavioral Genetics

The scientific study of how heredity influences behavior.

Heritability

The degree to which variation in a trait across individuals can be attributed to genetics.

Epigenetics

The study of how environment affects gene expression — turning genes "on" or "off" without changing DNA sequence (e.g., stress, diet, or toxins).

Soft Inheritance

The idea that experiences can affect gene expression across generations (e.g., stress in parents affecting offspring).

Santiago Ramón y Cajal

Discovered that the nervous system is made up of individual cells (neurons), not one continuous mass — known as the "Neuron Doctrine."

Neuron

Basic building block of the nervous system; specialized cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.

Glial Cell

Supports, nourishes, and protects neurons; creates myelin sheath and removes waste.

Soma (Cell Body)

Contains the nucleus; maintains the life of the neuron.

Dendrites

Branch-like structures that receive incoming messages from other neurons.

Axon

Long projection that transmits electrical impulses from the soma to other neurons or muscles.

Myelin Sheath

Fatty layer around the axon that speeds up transmission of electrical impulses.

Synapse

The tiny gap between one neuron's axon terminal and another neuron's dendrite where communication occurs.

Terminal Buttons

Knob-like ends of axons that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Sensory Neuron

Carries incoming sensory information from the body's sense organs to the brain and spinal cord.

Motor Neuron

Carries messages from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands to trigger movement.

Interneuron

Connects neurons within the brain and spinal cord; responsible for reflexes and internal communication.

Mirror Neuron

Fires when performing an action and when observing someone else performing the same action.

Action Potential

The electrical impulse that travels down an axon when a neuron fires.

Resting Potential

The electrical charge difference when a neuron is inactive; inside is negative relative to outside.

Refractory Period

Short period after firing when a neuron cannot fire again as it resets to resting potential.

All-or-None Principle

Once a neuron reaches threshold, it fires completely; strength of action potential does not vary.

Propagation

Movement of the action potential down the axon in a wave-like motion.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers released by neurons that transmit signals across the synapse.

Synaptic Vesicles

Tiny sacs in terminal buttons that store neurotransmitters before release.

Reuptake

Process where neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron after being released.

Enzymatic Degradation

Breakdown of neurotransmitters by enzymes so they can exit the body as waste.

Excitatory Signal

Increases likelihood that a neuron will fire an action potential.

Inhibitory Signal

Decreases likelihood that a neuron will fire.

Agonist

A drug that mimics a neurotransmitter and activates receptor sites (e.g., morphine mimics endorphins).

Antagonist

A drug that blocks neurotransmitter activity by binding to receptors without activating them (e.g., naloxone blocks opioids).

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord; processes information and sends instructions.