history lm

When was the Xian Incident?

December 1936 — Chiang Kai-shek was detained and pressed to cooperate with the CCP against Japan.

When was the Second United Front?

1937–45 — Chiang’s KMT and Mao’s CCP cooperated against Japan.

When was the Marco Polo Bridge Incident?

7 July 1937 — led to full-scale war between China and Japan.

When was the Battle of Shanghai?

August–November 1937 — major KMT resistance against Japan.

When was the Nanjing Massacre?

December 1937 — Japanese forces massacred civilians and disarmed soldiers after capturing Nanjing.

When did Edgar Snow publish Red Star Over China?

1937 — helped create a favourable Western image of Mao’s CCP.

How did the KMT-to-CCP troop ratio change during the war against Japan?

About 60:1 in 1937 to 3:1 in 1945 (class figures) — the CCP greatly expanded its forces.

When was the Dixie Mission?

July 1944 — US observers arrived in Yan’an and reported favourably on aspects of CCP organisation and resistance.

When did Japan surrender and the Chinese Civil War resume?

August 1945 — Japan announced surrender. The KMT and CCP raced to take control of territory.

When did the USSR invade Manchuria and how did this help the CCP?

9 August 1945 — Japan’s defeat gave the CCP access to weapons and a strategic base in Manchuria.

When was George Marshall’s peace mission?

December 1945–January 1947 — sought a ceasefire, coalition government and unified army.

Why did the Marshall Mission fail?

The January 1946 ceasefire broke down. The KMT and CCP competed for Manchuria and rejected lasting power-sharing.

When was Truman’s China arms embargo?

1946–47 — restricted KMT access to US arms while Washington tried to push both sides towards a settlement.

How much US aid to the KMT does the class material cite?

About US$225–360 million (class estimate).

How much US aid did the Marshall Plan provide?

About US$13 billion — European recovery aid, separate from Marshall’s mission to China.

Which campaigns decided the Chinese Civil War?

Liaoshen, Huaihai and Pingjin in 1948–49 — the CCP secured Manchuria, destroyed major Nationalist armies and took Beijing.

Why did the CCP defeat the KMT?

CCP land reform, rural support and military organisation. KMT corruption, inflation and defections weakened Chiang despite US aid.

When was the PRC proclaimed?

1 October 1949 — Mao proclaimed the PRC. Chiang’s KMT retreated to Taiwan later that year.

What was the “loss of China” debate?

Critics blamed Truman for communist victory. The August 1949 China White Paper argued that forces within China were decisive.

How did McCarthy exploit the ‘loss of China’?

From 1950 he alleged communist infiltration of the State Department. In June 1951 he attacked George Marshall, intensifying the Red Scare.

How did US policy towards China change after the CCP victory?

Washington continued recognising the KMT government on Taiwan. On 27 June 1950, Truman ordered the Seventh Fleet into the Taiwan Strait.

When was Korea divided and who led each state?

1945 — split at the 38th parallel. By 1948 Kim Il Sung led the North and Syngman Rhee the South.

When was the Truman Doctrine announced?

12 March 1947 — Truman requested US$400 million for Greece and Turkey, setting a precedent for containment.

How did the Berlin Blockade shape US thinking on Korea?

1948–49 — resistance to Soviet pressure in Berlin reinforced US commitment to containment.

When did the USSR test its first atomic bomb?

29 August 1949 — ended the US nuclear monopoly.

Why did Kim Il Sung seek Soviet support?

He wanted to reunify Korea under communist rule and needed Soviet weapons and approval for a rapid invasion.

Why did Stalin approve Kim’s invasion?

1950 — CCP victory, the Soviet atomic bomb and expectations of a quick victory. Stalin required Kim to consult Mao.

How did Stalin support North Korea once the war began?

The USSR supplied weapons and covert air support while avoiding open war with the USA.

When was Acheson’s Pacific defence speech and why did it matter?

12 January 1950 — South Korea lay outside the stated US defence perimeter. This may have encouraged Kim and Stalin, though Acheson left open UN action.

When was the Sino-Soviet Treaty signed and what did it provide?

14 February 1950 — 30-year alliance plus a related US$300 million Soviet loan to China.

When did the Korean War begin?

25 June 1950 — North Korean forces invaded South Korea across the 38th parallel.

Why did Truman intervene in Korea?

Containment, Japan’s security and UN collective security. The Red Scare and the loss of China made inaction politically costly.

What did UN Resolutions 82–84 do in Korea?

Condemned the invasion, recommended assistance and created a US-led unified command. The USSR’s boycott over China’s seat prevented a veto.

How many nations sent combat forces under UN command in Korea?

16, including the USA and Australia.

When was the Inchon landing and why did it matter?

15 September 1950 — MacArthur’s landing helped retake Seoul. UN forces then advanced into North Korea.

What did MacArthur predict at Wake Island?

15 October 1950 — he judged major Chinese intervention unlikely. Chinese troops entered Korea later that month.

When and why did China enter the Korean War?

October 1950 — Mao sent the People’s Volunteers as UN forces approached the Yalu. China wanted border security, a North Korean buffer and prestige.

Why did some CCP leaders oppose intervention in Korea?

China needed to rebuild after the civil war and risked a wider war against a stronger US military.

When and why was MacArthur dismissed?

11 April 1951 — he publicly pushed to widen the war. Truman upheld limited war and civilian control over nuclear decisions.

What three Cold War precedents did Korea set?

Limited war, proxy warfare and presidential control of nuclear escalation.

When did armistice talks begin and why did they drag on?

July 1951 — POW repatriation and disagreements over the ceasefire line delayed a settlement for about two years.

When did Stalin die and why did it matter for Korea?

5 March 1953 — Soviet leaders moved towards a settlement, helping break the armistice deadlock.

When was the Korean Armistice signed?

27 July 1953 — the DMZ ran near the original division. Both Korean states survived and no peace treaty followed.

How did Korea affect the 1952 US election?

November 1952 — wartime stalemate and Red Scare pressure hurt the Democrats. Republican Dwight Eisenhower won.

How did the Korean War reshape US security in Asia?

US security treaties with Japan in 1951, South Korea in 1953 and Taiwan in 1954 entrenched its regional role.

What did China gain from the Korean War?

A North Korean buffer, greater prestige for Mao, stronger claims to Asian communist leadership, combat experience and Soviet equipment.

What did the Korean War cost China?

Heavy losses, including Mao Anying in November 1950. War spending delayed reconstruction and Western embargoes restricted trade and technology.

What did Mao say about the economic cost of Korea?

War spending “more or less equaled our expenditures for national construction” — resources diverted from rebuilding.

QUOTE — Truman on intervention in Korea?

“We can’t let the UN down.” — collective security.

QUOTE — John Lewis Gaddis on Korea’s significance?

“the only decisive outcome of the war was the precedent it set” — limited war and nuclear restraint.

What Korean War casualty figures did the class use?

36,568 US deaths, about 600,000 Chinese deaths and over 2 million Korean casualties. Estimates and definitions vary.

When was the Prague Spring crushed?

August 1968 — the Soviet-led invasion stopped Czechoslovak reforms. The Brezhnev Doctrine justified intervention to protect bloc socialism.

When was SALT I signed?

May 1972 — US–Soviet arms agreements showed détente could produce negotiated limits.

When were the Helsinki Accords signed and why did they matter?

1 August 1975 — 35 states signed. Their human rights commitments gave the Moscow Helsinki Group (1976) and Charter 77 (1977) grounds to challenge repression.

How heavy was the Soviet defence burden?

1976 CIA estimate: 11–12% of GNP and about one-third of machinery output. The class handout’s 25% of GDP is a separate estimate.

How much did Soviet growth slow before Gorbachev?

Annual GNP growth fell from 5.3% in 1966–70 to 2.4% in 1981–85 (CIA estimate). Long-term stagnation made reform urgent.

How large was the Soviet grain shortfall?

About 40 million tonnes in 1981–82 (class figure). Grain imports cost over 15 billion roubles in 1965–80 (class estimate).

How steep was the 1986 oil price crash?

About US$31 a barrel in late 1985 to US$12–13 in early 1986 (World Bank chart) — squeezed Soviet export earnings.

Why did shortages and rationing matter politically?

They undermined confidence in the Soviet system and exposed the gap in living standards with the West.

What did the Soviet–Afghan War cost the USSR?

December 1979–15 February 1989. About 15,000 Soviet personnel died and the war cost about 8 billion roubles a year (class estimate).

When was martial law imposed in Poland?

December 1981 — the Polish government cracked down on Solidarity. The movement survived underground and returned to negotiations in 1989.

When was SDI announced and how did US military spending add pressure?

23 March 1983 — Reagan proposed missile defence research. The class handout puts US defence spending at US$1.6 trillion in 1982–89.

When did Gorbachev take power?

11 March 1985 — he sought to revive the economy and reform Soviet socialism.

How did perestroika and glasnost weaken Soviet control?

Perestroika disrupted economic controls while shortages persisted. Glasnost made failures public and gave dissent and nationalism more room to grow.

What was Gorbachev’s New Thinking?

From the mid-1980s, he pursued mutual security through arms control, reduced military commitments and cooperation with the West, easing pressure on domestic reform.

When was the Chernobyl disaster?

26 April 1986 — the disaster and initial secrecy damaged trust in Soviet authorities.

When was the Reykjavík Summit?

11–12 October 1986 — Reagan and Gorbachev made no final deal but advanced the talks that led to the INF Treaty.

How did the Reagan Doctrine increase the pressure on Moscow?

Washington backed anti-communist forces overseas. US-supplied Stingers from 1986 made Soviet air operations in Afghanistan riskier.

When was the INF Treaty signed and what did it remove?

8 December 1987 — eliminated US and Soviet ground-launched missiles with ranges of 500–5,500 km. By June 1991, 2,692 missiles had been destroyed.

What military cuts did Gorbachev announce at the UN?

7 December 1988 — 500,000 personnel overall and 10,000 tanks in European deployments. Six tank divisions would leave Eastern Europe.

How large was Solidarity, and how did it perform in Poland’s 1989 election?

At least 8 million members by early 1981. In June 1989 it won 99 of 100 Senate seats and all 161 freely contested lower-house seats.

What were the Soviet miners’ strikes?

July 1989 — strikes over pay, shortages and working conditions showed how economic problems turned into political pressure.

What was the Sinatra Doctrine?

1989 — Moscow let Eastern European countries choose their own course. Soviet non-intervention gave local movements room to remove communist governments.

When was the Baltic Way?

23 August 1989 — about 2 million people formed a human chain over 600 km long across three Soviet republics.

When did the Berlin Wall fall and why?

9 November 1989 — mass protests, travel pressure and Soviet restraint. About 500,000 gathered at Alexanderplatz on 4 November (German government estimate).

When was the Velvet Revolution?

November–December 1989 — mass protests ended communist rule in Czechoslovakia and Václav Havel became president.

What marked the end of confrontation in Europe in 1989–90?

Malta Summit (2–3 Dec 1989), German reunification (3 Oct 1990) and the Charter of Paris (21 Nov 1990).

When was START I signed?

31 July 1991 — US–Soviet treaty to reduce strategic nuclear arsenals, following INF’s elimination of a different missile class.

What did demokratizatsiya change in the USSR?

Competitive elections opened political debate in 1989. The March 1990 amendment to Article 6 ended the Communist Party’s constitutional monopoly.

What happened in the August 1991 coup?

19–21 August 1991 — the hardliners’ coup failed, strengthening Boris Yeltsin and accelerating Soviet republics’ moves towards independence.

How strongly did Ukraine vote for independence?

Over 90% voted yes on 1 December 1991. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus signed the Belavezha Accords on 8 December.

When did the USSR dissolve?

26 December 1991 — the day after Gorbachev resigned.

What made the end of the Cold War possible, and what triggered the USSR’s breakup?

Stagnation created pressure. The arms race worsened it. Gorbachev’s reforms and non-intervention enabled change. The failed August 1991 coup accelerated Soviet breakup.

QUOTE — Archie Brown on Gorbachev’s leadership?

“The Gorbachev revolution” — leadership from above made sweeping change possible.

QUOTE — Gorbachev on the Afghan War?

“bleeding wound” — 25 February 1986, Soviet Party Congress.

QUOTE — Gorbachev on freedom of choice?

“Freedom of choice is a universal principle.” — 7 December 1988, UN General Assembly.

QUOTE — Yegor Gaidar on economic causes?

“grain and oil” — linked import dependence and falling oil revenue to Soviet vulnerability.

What is terrorism and why is it asymmetric?

Non-state violence or threats intended to coerce a wider audience for political change. Weaker groups use fear and publicity to pressure stronger states.

How did the Soviet–Afghan War create conditions for Al-Qaeda?

1979–89 — Afghan resistance drew about 35,000 foreign fighters from 40+ countries (class estimate). Operation Cyclone supported Afghan Mujahideen, largely via Pakistan.

When was Al-Qaeda founded and what preceded it?

1988 — bin Laden and associates built on Maktab al-Khidamat, the wartime recruitment and fundraising network run by bin Laden and Abdullah Azzam.

Why did Al-Qaeda target the USA as the far enemy?

The US supported regional governments Al-Qaeda opposed. US troops stationed in Saudi Arabia after the 1990–91 Gulf War sharpened bin Laden’s grievance.

How did globalisation help Al-Qaeda operate?

Cross-border travel, finance and communications connected recruits and cells. Global media amplified attacks far beyond their immediate targets.

What changed between bin Laden’s 1996 and 1998 declarations?

1996 focused on US forces in Saudi Arabia. 1998 widened the call to attack US civilians, military personnel and allies. The Taliban sheltered bin Laden in Afghanistan.

When were the US embassy bombings and how did the USA respond?

7 August 1998 — Nairobi and Dar es Salaam truck bombs killed 224. Operation Infinite Reach struck targets in Afghanistan and Sudan that August.

When was the USS Cole attacked?

12 October 2000 — an Al-Qaeda suicide boat bombing in Aden, Yemen, killed 17 US sailors.

What happened on 9/11?

11 September 2001 — four hijacked planes. Two hit the World Trade Center, one hit the Pentagon and one crashed in Pennsylvania. Nearly 3,000 victims died.

What did 9/11 achieve for Al-Qaeda?

It inflicted mass casualties, drew global publicity and provoked a US response. Al-Qaeda lost its Afghan sanctuary in the short term and fell short of its wider political aims.

What were the immediate US and NATO responses to 9/11?

18 September 2001 — AUMF authorised force. NATO confirmed its first use of Article 5 on 2 October. The USA PATRIOT Act expanded investigative powers on 26 October.

When and why did Operation Enduring Freedom begin?

7 October 2001 — US and British airstrikes began to dismantle Al-Qaeda and end Taliban protection of the group.

How did the 2003 Iraq invasion affect Al-Qaeda?

The 9/11 Commission found no operational partnership with Saddam. Post-invasion instability helped Al-Qaeda in Iraq grow.