A&P 2 Exam 4: Respiratory & Digestive System

Hypoxia

low tissue oxygen level

places severe limits on metabolic activities of the affected area

Anoxia

inadequate oxygen reaching body tissues

kills cells very quickly

Pneumothorax

condition in which air enters the pleural cavity due to an injury to the chest wall that penetrates the parietal pleura, or ruptures the alveoli, breaking through visceral pleura

"Collapsed Lung"

Atelectasis

Collapsed lung

Eupnea

quiet breathing

inhalation involves muscular contraction, but exhalation is a passive process

Apnea

Cessation of breathing

Compliance

expandability; the ability of certain organs to tolerate changes in volume; indicates the presence of elastic fibers and smooth muscles

Hyperpnea

forced breathing

involves active inspiratory and expiratory movements

External Respiration

exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood

Converts deO2 to O2 blood

Pulmonary Ventilation

breathing; the exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the lungs so external respiration can then occur with the blood

Internal Respiration

exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells

O2 to deO2 blood

Boyle's Law

the pressure of a gas in a closed container is inversely proportional to the volume of its container

Size of container doubled = gas pressure decreased by half

Diaphragmatic (deep) Breathing

contraction of diaphragm provides necessary change in thoracic volume

air drawn into lungs as diaphragm contracts, air exhaled passively when diaphragm relaxes

Costal (shallow) Breathing

thoracic volume changes because the rib cage alters its shape

inhalation takes place when contractions of the external intercostal muscles raise the ribs and enlarge the thoracic cavity

exhalation takes place passively when these muscles relax

Elastic Rebound

when muscles of inhalation relax, the elastic components recoil, returning the diaphragm, rib cage, or both to their original positions

Respiration

one inspiration and one expiration

Spirometer

device used to measure amount of air exchanged during breathing

Tidal Volume (TV)

amount of air moved in or out of respiratory passageways during inhalation or exhalation

Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)

air breathed in forcibly after normal inhalation

Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)

air forced out after normal exhalation

Minute Volume of Respiration

total air taken in per minute

Residual Volume

amount of air remaining in lungs after expiratory reserve volume is expelled

Vital Capacity

IRV + TV + ERV

Upper Respiratory System

nose, nasal cavity, paranasal sinuses, and pharynx

Lower Respiratory System

larynx, trachea, bronchi and bronchioles, and alveoli

Respiratory tract

the passageways that carry air to and from the lung exchange surfaces

Alveoli

terminal pockets at the end of the respiratory tree, lined by a simple squamous epithelium and surrounded by a capillary network; sites of gas exchange with the blood

Respiratory mucosa

lines the conducting portion of the respiratory system

Mucosa

mucous membrane

Lamina propria

underlying layer of areolar tissue that supports the respiratory epithelium

Nasal vestibule

the space contained within the flexible tissues of the nose

Soft palate

the fleshy posterior extension of the hard palate, separating the nasopharynx from the oral cavity

Pharynx

the throat; a muscular passageway shared by the digestive and respiratory tracts

Nasopharynx

a region that is posterior to the internal nares and superior to the soft palate and ends at the oropharynx

lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Oropharynx

the middle portion of the pharynx, bounded superiorly by the nasopharynx, anteriorly by the oral cavity, and inferiorly by the laryngopharynx

Stratified squamous epithelium

Laryngopharynx

the divisions of the pharynx that is inferior to the epiglottis and superior to the esophagus

Larynx

a complete cartilaginous structure that surrounds and protects the glottis and vocal cords

Thyroid cartilage

largest laryngeal cartilage

made of hyaline cartilage

forms most of the anterior and lateral walls of the larynx

Cricoid cartilage

a ring-shaped cartilage that forms the inferior margin of the larynx

protect the glottis and entrance to the trachea

Epiglottis

a blade-shaped flap of tissue, reinforced by cartilage, that is attached to the posterior and superior surface of the thyroid cartilage; folds over the entrance to the larynx during swallowing

Arytenoid cartilage

a pair of small cartilages in the larynx

Corniculate cartilage

a pair of small laryngeal cartilages

Glottis

structure within the larynx that consists of the vocal folds and the rima glottidis

Bolus

pasty mass that food is crushed and chewed into

Phonation

sound production at the larynx

Laryngitis

an infection or inflammation of the larynx

commonly affects vibrational qualities of vocal folds

hoarseness

Acute epiglottitis

swelling of epiglottis

Trachea

the windpipe; an airway extending from the larynx to the primary bronchi

Submucosa

the region between the muscularis muscosae and the muscularis externa

Bronchial tree

the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles

Carina of trachea

a ridge that separates the openings of the right and left main bronchi at their junction with the trachea

Bonchus

branch/branches of the bronchial tree between the trachea and bronchioles

Bronchitis

difficulty breathing

Bronchodilation

the dilation of the bronchial passages; can be caused by sympathetic stimulation

Bronchoconstriction

reduction in the luminal diameter of the airway

Alveolar sacs

an air-filled chamber at the terminal end of the alveolar duct that gives rise to the alveoli in the lung

Pneumocytes type I

squamous epithelial cells that are the sites of gas diffusion

Alveolar macrophages

patrol epithelial surface

engulf any particles that have eluded other defenses

Pneumocytes type II

scattered among squamous cells

produce surfactant

Surfactant

a lipid secretion that coats the alveolar surfaces of the lungs and prevents their collapse

key role in keeping the alveoli open

Pneumonia

develops from an infection or any particle that causes inflammation within the lung

Lungs

the paired organs of breathing enclosed by the pleural cavities

Hilum

provides access for entry to pulmonary vessels, nerves, and lymphatics

Pulmonary embolism

blocking a branch of a pulmonary artery stops blood flow to a group of lobules or alveoli

Congestive heart failure

the failure to maintain adequate cardiac output due to cardiovascular problems or myocardial damage

Pleura

the serous membrane that lines the pleural cavities

Parietal pleura

covers the inner surface of the thoracic wall and extends over the diaphragm and mediastinum

Visceral pleura

covers the outer surfaces of the lungs, extending into the fissures between the lobes

Pleural fluid

moist, slippery coating

reduces friction between the parietal and visceral surfaces during breathing

Pulmonary ventilation

the movement of air into and out of the lungs

Alveolar ventilation

movement of air into and out of the alveoli

Atmospheric pressure

weight of earth's atmosphere

Inspiration

inhalation

movement of air into the respiratory system

Intrapulmonary pressure

the pressure inside the respiratory tract, at the alveoli

Intrapleural pressure

the pressure in the pleural cavity, between the parietal and visceral pleurae

Respiratory rate

the number of breaths taken each minute

Respiratory minute volume

the amount of air moved into and out of the respiratory system each minute

Tidal volume

the amount of air moved into or out of the lungs during a single respiratory cycle

Inspiratory reserve volume

the amount of air that can be taken over and above the tidal volume

Pancreatic duct

a tubular duct that carries pancreatic juice from the pancreas to the duodenum

Pancreatic juice

a mixture of buffers and digestive enzymes that is discharged into the duodenum under the stimulation of the enzymes, secretin and cholecystokinin

Pancreatitis

an inflammation of the pancreas

Pancreatic alpha-amylase

enzyme that breaks down certain starches

Carbohydrase

an enzyme that breaks down carbohydrate molecules

Pancreatic lipase

breaks down certain complex lipids, releasing products that can be easily absorbed

Nucleases

breaks down RNA or DNA

Proteolytic enzymes

break apart proteins

Proteases

an enzyme that breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids

Elastase

a pancreatic enzyme that breaks down elastin fibers

Liver

an organ of the digestive system that has varied and vital functions, including the production of plasma proteins, the excretion of bile, the storage of energy reserves, the detoxification of poisons, and the interconversion of nutrients

Ligamentum teres

the fibrous strand in the falciform ligament of adults that is the remnant of the umbilical vein

What is the doorway to the liver?

Porta hepatis

Hepatocytes

liver cells

Lobules

basic functional units of the liver

Bile

the exocrine secretion of the liver; stored in the gallbladder and ejected into the duodenum

Hepatic ducts

the duct that carries bile away from the liver lobes and toward the union with the cystic duct

Bile duct

the duct formed by the union of the cystic duct from the gallbladder and the common hepatic duct from the liver; terminates at the duodenal ampulla, where it meets the pancreatic duct

Cystic duct

a duct that carries bile between the gallbladder and the common bile duct

Bile salts

steroid derivatives in bile; responsible for the emulsification of ingested lipids

Enterohepatic circulation

the excretion of bile salts by the liver, followed by the absorption of bile salts by intestinal cells for return to the liver by the hepatic portal vein