edhd200 exam 1

first 5 lecture sets (1-25= intro, 26-40= evolutionary theory, 41-70 = psychoanalytic)

theory

a logical system of concepts that helps to explain observations and contributes to the development of a body of knowledge; repeat the study to establish reliability→ theory

Variables and constructs (the what), hypotheses (the how)

framework that helps explain observations and predicts future events

criteria for a theory (Murray Sidman)

inclusiveness, consistency, accuracy, relevance, fruitfulness, simplicity

variable

anything that can take on more than one value (ex. height, weight, intelligence)

construct

a group of variables that are related to one another

Occam’s razor

the problem solving principle that recommends searching for explanations constructed with the smallest possible set of elements (aka law of parsimony)

hypothesis

statement that posits an “if…then” relationship between variables or constructs

human development

the study of how humans change and remain the same over time; not a topic, but a method for studying human behavior

the scientific method

ask a question→ form hypothesis→ collect data→ analyze the results→ draw conclusions

naturalistic observation

observing behavior in someone’s natural environment

structured observation

observing behavior in a controlled environment, situation designed by the experimenter

open ended interview

a trained interviewer uses a conversational style that encourages the person under study to expand his or her responses

structured interview

the same set of questions are asked to each participant in the same way

questionnaires

surveys, participants respond to a set of questions

case study

an in-depth examination of a single person or a small group of people

experiments

a study design that uses control to determine cause and effect relationships among variables

validity

do we measure what we want to measure?

ecological validity

do our research results generalize to real-world experience?

reliability

does our research consistently produce a given result?

reduplication reliability

if we repeat this same study with different participants do we get the same results?

developmental stances

disagreement among scientists about how development proceeds and what causes change

nature vs. nurture, activity vs. passivity, continuity vs. discontinuity

active development

we create experiences that lead to developmental change

passive

we are shaped by our environment and molded by experience

continuity

age-related changes occur gradually

discontinuity

age-related changes include large shifts so that individuals seem qualitatively different at different ages

the theory house

foundation= assumptions

hypotheses & mechanisms= the how

variables & constructs= the what

charles darwin

British naturalist, studied plants, animals, and the natural world through observation in their natural habitats; his principles laid the groundwork for evolutionary theory

oined the HMS Beagle 5 year expedition to South America (age 20), served as naturalist on board, visited Galapagos Islands, expedition inspired Darwin’s ideas behind evolution

Studied finches found on the islands, saw variation between the species→ what caused these differences?

mechanism of evolutionary theory

natural selection; traits that help an organism survive in its environment

survival of the fittest

the individuals with traits best suited to their particular environment survive, not necessarily the strongest ones

on the origin of species (1859)

book that discussed how species emerge and evolve

-struggle to survive, natural selection, and adaptation to environment

adaptation

process where living things develop structures and problem-solving mechanisms that help them thrive in a particular environment (ex. Darwin’s finches)

key points of evolutionary theory

Change is slow and incremental process that happens over generations

Populations adapt over time because natural selection favors pre-existing traits that enhance survival in a specific environment

misconceptions of evolutionary theory

Evolution happens because organisms want to adapt

Survival of the fittest means only the strongest survive

Evolution always leads to better organisms

Darwin and human evolution

The expression of the emotions in Man and Animals (1872): how do emotions originate, are emotions instinctual or acquired by learning, do animals have comparable feelings?

Observed human expressions while on the HMS Beagle voyage and at home in his own children

Sent a questionnaire to colleagues around the world to collect information on emotional expressions, underlying nature of emotions

ontogeny

refers to growth and development from conception to adult form

phylogeny

refers to evolution of a species over generations

ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny

the development of an individual tends to mirror the evolutionary history of its species

development of morality

Has evolutionary roots

1. “Me to we” 2. “We” to “we the people”, shared intentionality

Ex. collaborative foraging→ pressure for cultural organization

Self interest→ “we” before “me”→ morality of right and wrong

Dr. Michael Tomasello, Duke University

children’s moral development

Does the development of the individual mirror the evolutionary history of its species?

The prediction would be that children progress from me to we and then from we to we the people

Solitary play: self interest→ parallel play: social interaction→ cooperative play: group agreement

summary of evolutionary theory

Assumes that the natural laws that apply to plant and animal life also apply to humans.

Natural selection means that behavior is adapted to the environment in which it occurs.

Traits evolve if they improve survival and reproduction.

Species will change over time as they are adapting to their environment through natural selection and that is how we get diverse species.

Ontogeny (loosely) recapitulates phylogeny, and we can see evidence of this in the development of morality as a species and as individuals

Sigmund Freud

theorist behind psychoanalytic theory, founder of psychoanalysis (method of helping people in mental distress), believed experiences in early childhood shape who we are

Started his career in France treating women diagnosed with hysteria using a hypnosis technique

In Vienna, he opened a clinic where he treated individuals with hypnosis; psychoanalytic theory is built on his interactions with his patients in his clinic

Publications: The Ego and the Id, focuses on the human psyche (id, ego, superego) (1923), and Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality, focuses on the impact of sexual and aggressive drives on individual’s psychological functioning (1905)

dynamic aspect of psychoanalytic theory

What motivates our behavior?

Instincts, unconscious drives that are aggressive & sexual in nature

Expressed through our dreams, behaviors, or symptoms of psychological disorders because society tells us to inhibit these drives

structural aspect of psychoanalytic theory

how is our mind organized? (iceberg analogy)

Conscious (ego), preconscious (superego), unconscious (id)

the conscious

small part of mind, thoughts and feelings we are currently aware of; Ego

Ego

executive mediating between id impulses and superego inhibitions, testing reality; rational. Operates mainly at conscious level but also at preconscious level

Consists of the cognitive processes that allow us to take in information, process it, and make a decision; operates on the reality principle

infancy

preconscious

a layer of awareness containing information that is not currently in conscious thought but can be easily recalled and brought to mind, flow into awareness with little attention, superego

superego

ideals and morals, striving for perfection, incorporated from parents, becoming a person’s conscience. Operates mostly at preconscious level, but some unconscious, operates in the preconscious mind on the ego ideal and conscience

‘Punishing function’; not always the “angel” if we don’t live up to ideals

early childhood

unconscious

wishes, fears, impulses, where our drives exist Freud used this to explain our behavior, id

Id

Operates on ‘pleasure principle’, basic impulses (sex & aggression), seeking immediate gratification, irrational and impulsive, operates at unconscious level, source of instincts and impulses

birth

the kronk analogy

the interaction of the Id (devil), Ego (Kronk), and Superego (angel)

sequential aspect of psychoanalytic theory

how do we develop?, psychosexual stages

An individual needs to resolve conflicts that arise in each stage. If unsuccessful, the individual develops a fixation from that stage

oral stage

Ages: 0-1 (babies’ behavior centered around their mouth, hunger drive)

Behaviors: use of oral sense, like sucking and tasting

Conflict: successful vs. unsuccessful weaning (anxiety/distress)

Fixation: independent adult vs. issues with oral dependency (ie. smoking)

anal stage

Ages: 1-3

Behaviors: control of bladder and bowel movements

Conflict: successful vs. critical potty training (supportive caregiver or not)

Fixation: competent vs. overly rigid/obsessive (cleanliness)

phallic stage

Ages: 3-6

Learn differences between genders

Conflict: resolve relationship with same-sex parent (Oedipus complex)

Fixation: low self-esteem, vanity, attention-seeking, envy (superego)

latent stage

Ages: 6-puberty

Behaviors: sexual repression, ego develops

Conflict: sexual energy redirected to intellectual/social pursuits, if unsuccessful with friendships/relationships→ immaturity in adulthood

Fixation: immaturity or insecurity in relationships

genital stage

Ages: puberty +

Behaviors: sexual interests and romantic relationships

Conflict: balance between self and others

Fixation: sexual ‘perversions’ and difficulty in relationships

summary of psychoanalytic theory

Freud’s revolutionary and controversial ideas grabbed the attention of the public when they were published. His work is associated with the stereotypical view of therapy

Freud’s theory can be described in terms of the dynamic, structural, and sequential parts of the human mind

Freud believes that innate, sexual, aggressive drives contribute to our personality development

The unconscious, preconscious, and conscious mind house the id, superego, and ego, respectively, and make up the components of our personality

The psychosexual stages outline the sexual and aggressive forces that drive early human behavior and shape adulthood behavior

Anna Freud

considered founder of child psychology, pivotal in building nursery schools in England during WWII; established the idea of therapeutic alliance– emotional & cognitive connection between a clinician and client; research shows importance of this alliance

She built on Sigmund Freud’s concept of the ego and defense mechanisms

Stated it’s important to recognize a child as their own person and building trust

defense mechanisms

strategies that are initiated unconsciously to protect a person from anxiety so that effective functioning can be preserved

range from more basic to more complex based on the mental energy they take to employ

All are costly because it takes a lot of energy to protect the conscious mind and does not leave us with enough energy to monitor and evaluate our reality to handle daily demands

Children tend to use mechanisms that take less energy

We tend to use the same mechanism over and over, becomes defense style

repression

push disturbing thoughts, impulses, or experiences into the unconscious

regression

returning to less mature coping strategies from an earlier stage of development

denial

ignoring unpleasant realities

projection

attributing your own unacceptable behavior onto someone else

displacement

releasing anger/anxiety onto someone other than the source of the discomfort

rationalization

Justifying a behavior by substituting an acceptable explanation for a socially unacceptable explanation

reaction formation

expressing the opposite of your true feelings or motives

sublimation

transforming a socially unacceptable anxiety into energy for a socially acceptable behavior

parent’s reaction to children’s pleasure-seeking behaviors

Neuroses are produced by the response of parents to the expression of basic sexual or aggressive drives in early childhood

Early traumatic childhood experiences contribute to the formation of adult personality conflicts and behaviors

parent’s role in formation of superego

child behavior→ parent’s reaction– acceptance or rejection, permissive or control, consistency or inconsistency → child’s superego (what gets internalized based on parent’s reaction)

Can get transferred down generations

parenting practice implications

Approach children’s negative or unacceptable behaviors calmly

Recognize that children are observing you and learning from your actions and behaviors

Use inductions to support children’s ego development: “Imagine how you would feel if someone took your teddy bear away?”

summary of anna freud & psychoanalysis

Anna Freud’s work focused on children and ego development.

Defense mechanisms arise when conflict between the id and superego threaten to come into consciousness

The type of defense mechanism used depends on a person’s age and the intensity of the perceived threat

According to Freud, the quality of parent-child relationships is important because how parents react to a child expressing their drives can affect if a child develops a fixation

Parents also play a big role in their child’s developing superego

psychosocial theory

theory that aims to explain changes in self-understanding, social relationships, and one’s relationship with society/others as a product of interactions among biological, psychological, and societal systems

Erik Erikson

German theorist, one of first lifespan theorists and child analysts in the US, traveled around Europe and taught art at Anna Freud’s school (Vienna Psychoanalytic Society)

Proved talented with children, trained directly with Anna Freud

Met his wife Joan in Vienna, she was very influential in his work, they moved to Boston and became child analyst in his clinical practice → direct observations of children’s behavior

Cross-cultural research with indigenous tribes in the US observing childrearing practices in tribes

Inspired his thoughts on the role of culture in development

Childhood and Society (1950)

developmental stages

a period of life characterized by a specific underlying organization

individuals are characteristically different/unique in each stage

specific direction of development (always moving forward)

epigenetic principle

Erikson believed that the stages of development followed a biological plan for growth; stages occur in a sequence, the entire lifespan is required for all functions of psychosocial development to appear

psychosocial developmental stages

patterns of changes in self-concept and a coordinated sense of self in society based on new cognitive capacities, new learning, and new relationship skills

psychosocial crisis

conflict between a person’s abilities at the beginning of a stage and society’s expectations for behavior at that period of life; likelihood of a negative outcome are higher as we get older, because the demands of society increase

radius of significant relationships

your relationships are the channel through which age-related cultural and community expectations are communicated

the ego is the social processing system that is sensitive to these social expectations, we get messages about what is appropriate for us through our relationships

prime adaptive ego qualities

basic adaptive capacities that individuals develop by working through and coping with challenges, you get these qualities as you’re trending toward the positive side of crisis resolution (ex. hope, will, competence)

core pathologies

maladaptive orientations that individuals develop by ineffectively working through and failing to cope with challenges, trending towards negative side of crisis resolution

trust vs. mistrust

oral-sensory stage; can you rely on others for help?

PAEQ: hope (an enduring belief that one can attain one’s deep and essential wishes)

CP: withdrawal (social & emotional detachment)

autonomy vs. shame/doubt

muscular-anal stage; am I confident in my abilities, can I handle myself?

PAEQ: will (a determination to exercise free choice and self control)

CP: compulsion (repetitive behaviors motivated by impulse or by restrictions against the expression of impulse; detachment)

initiative vs. guilt

locomotor-genital stage; trying to do things independently

PAEQ: purpose (the ability to imagine and pursue valued goals)

CP: inhibition (a psychological restraint that prevents freedom of though, expression, activity)

industry vs. inferiority

latency stage; pursue things beyond family/home, comparisons between self & others

PAEQ: competence (the free exercise of skill & intelligence in the completion of tasks)

CP: inertia (a paralysis of action and thought that prevents productive work)

identity cohesion vs. role confusion

adolescence stage; developing identity & skills, cohesive idea of self

PAEQ: fidelity to values (the ability to freely pledge and sustain loyalty to values and ideologies)

CP: repudiation (rejection of most roles and values because they are viewed as alien to oneself)

intimacy vs. isolation

young adulthood stage; you need to love yourself in order to love others

PAEQ: love (capacity for mutuality that transcends childhood dependency)

CP: exclusivity (shutting out of others)

generativity vs. stagnation

adulthood stage; prioritizing family, career, trying to figure out how to support society

PAEQ: care (a commitment to concern about what has been generated)

CP: rejectivity (unwillingness to include certain others or groups of others in one’s generative concern)

ego integrity vs. despair

maturity stage; order, sense of who you are, feeling good or bad about yourself

PAEQ: wisdom (a detached yet active concern with life itself in the face of death)

CP: disdain (a feeling of scorn for the weakness and fragility of oneself and others)

summary of psychosocial theory

Guided by the epigenetic principle that argues that we encounter each stage in an orderly pattern

States that individuals experience change in their sense of self and society in developmental stages guided by age

Focused on the development of ego

In each stage, we experience a crisis that is either resolved, and individuals develop prime adaptive ego qualities or unresolved, and individuals develop core pathologies

identity

sense of self that is coherent and consistent over time

(Dr. James) Marcia’s theory of identity development

the degree to which individuals have explored possible selves and whether they have committed to specific beliefs and goals

extended Erikson’s theory by proposing identity statuses adolescents face during the identity cohesion vs. role confusion crisis

These four identity statuses are defined as an individual’s commitment to this identity and their willingness to explore the identity

Even adults who have achieved a sense of identity revisit and reconstruct identity

low exploration, high commitment

foreclosure- I’ve made a choice without thinking

low exploration, low commitment

identity diffusion- I don’t know and don’t care what I’m supposed to do with my life

high exploration, high commitment

identity achievement- I thought about it and I now know what I should do with my life

high exploration, low commitment

moratorium- I’m thinking about what I should do

Behaviorism

learning theory; propose mechanisms to account for relatively permanent changes in thoughts & behaviors that occur as a result of experience

classical conditioning

learning association between a stimulus and response

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism (ex. food)

unconditioned response (UCR)

an unlearned (neutral) reaction to the stimulus (ex. salivation)

neutral stimulus (NS)

does not naturally elicit a response, presented immediately before UCS (ex. bell sound)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with a UCS (ex. bell sound)