Part two: Fascist Italy, 1926–1945 (A-level only)

Propaganda and the cult of Il Duce: control of the media; education as propaganda; the role of Fascist organisations

first B.P

Mussolinianism

The presentation of Mussolini and Fascism as inseparable. Propaganda portrayed Mussolini as the creator, guide and embodiment of the Italian state, and as the source of all Fascist achievements. It promoted authoritarian leadership, national unity and obedience to the state. The slogan “Mussolini is always right” (Il Duce ha sempre ragione) encouraged personal loyalty to Mussolini, suggesting Italy’s success depended on loyalty to him.

Cult of Il Duce

The creation of a heroic, almost legendary image of Mussolini. Il Duce means “The Leader”. His image appeared on posters, newspapers, films, schools and public buildings. Italians were encouraged to admire and obey him without question. The aim was to make Mussolini appear as the embodiment of the Italian nation.

Mussolini as a statesman

Propaganda portrayed him as a strong and decisive leader, a protector of Italy, someone who solved problems quickly and a respected international statesman.

Mussolini as a man

Propaganda showed Mussolini riding horses, driving tractors, swimming, skiing and working with farmers or soldiers. These images created the impression that he was strong, energetic, hardworking and connected to ordinary Italians.

Roman imagery

Fascist propaganda strongly connected Mussolini with the greatness of Ancient Rome. The fasces, Roman

Myth of Mussolini

Propaganda created myths that Mussolini worked harder than anyone else, never made mistakes and had saved Italy from chaos. The mantra “Mussolini is always right” reinforced the idea that he was almost superhuman and discouraged criticism.

Control of the media

Newspapers were strictly controlled by the Fascist government. Only state

Radio and cinema

Mussolini’s speeches and heroic images were broadcast through radio and films. By 1938, around 1 million Italians owned a radio. Fascist newsreels were legally required to be shown before films, while propaganda messages could also appear in adverts. Mussolini considered cinema one of the most important forms of propaganda.

Education as propaganda

Schools taught children to support Fascism, militarism, obedience and Mussolini. Teachers had to swear an oath of loyalty to Mussolini. The Libro Unico was a compulsory, state

ONB (Opera Nazionale Balilla)

A Fascist youth organisation for children. It used uniforms, military activities, marches, organised leisure and Fascist political education to encourage children to support Mussolini and Fascism.

Limits of Fascist propaganda

Fascist control was not complete because the Catholic Church remained highly influential. The Lateran Pacts of 1929 established an agreement between Mussolini and the Catholic Church, meaning Fascism largely stayed out of Church affairs. The Church therefore remained an alternative source of influence over Italians.

OND (Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro)

A Fascist organisation that organised leisure activities and promoted Fascist values. By 1939 it had nearly 4 million members. Activities included cycling groups, football teams and trips to the beach. It allowed Fascism to influence Italians during their free time.

Sport as propaganda

Sport was used to promote national unity and Fascist pride. Italy hosted and won the 1934 Football World Cup, while Italian athletes won 12 gold medals at the 1932 Olympics. These achievements were used to associate sporting success with Mussolini and the strength of Fascist Italy.

Effects of propaganda

Propaganda helped create the image of Mussolini as a great national leader, made opposition and criticism more difficult, and made Fascism appear widely popular. Young people were encouraged to become loyal to the regime. However, much of this apparent support was manufactured through censorship, propaganda and control.

The police state

Fascist Italy relied heavily on force and control. The OVRA, Fascist secret police, was established in 1927 and monitored political opponents, discouraging anti Fascism. The MVSN / Blackshirts, instituted in 1923, provided the regime with a paramilitary force. The Special Tribunal, established in 1926, punished political crimes through imprisonment and execution, although only 9 people were executed between 1926 and 1940. However, Mussolini did not rely entirely on repression, as Fascism and Mussolini were also popular. Propaganda, along with perceived successes in economic and foreign policy, strengthened his public image and popularity.

The machinery of Fascist repression

Confino was a form of internal exile where opponents were sent to remote or desolate areas of Italy or its islands, removing them from their political networks. The regime also controlled newspapers, books, radio and cinema, reducing Italians’ exposure to anti Mussolini and anti Fascist criticism. This helped create the impression of a powerful, well functioning state. By the end of the 1920s, Italy was a one party Fascist state, with all political opposition parties illegalised and forced underground.

Methods of dealing with opposition and dissent

The Blackshirts / Squadristi were Fascist paramilitary groups that attacked political opponents, trade unionists and socialist organisations using beatings, intimidation and destruction of opposition offices. The Matteotti case of 1924 demonstrated the violence used against opposition. Censorship laws passed in 1925 / 1926 and later in the 1930s controlled newspapers and restricted criticism of Mussolini and Fascism. Propaganda through newspapers, radio, posters, education and rallies promoted Fascism and portrayed opponents negatively. After 1925/26, opposition parties were effectively banned. Special Tribunals dealt with people accused of threatening the Fascist state. The OVRA monitored suspected opponents, identified and arrested anti Fascists and used intimidation. Confino sent opponents into forced residence in remote areas of Italy or its islands. Independent trade unions were also suppressed and replaced with Fascist controlled organisations

The race laws of 1938

In 1938, the Fascist regime published the Manifesto of Race, which promoted racial definitions based heavily on ancestry. Throughout 1938, the government introduced anti Jewish laws. Jewish students were excluded from state schools and universities. Jews were excluded from many areas of public employment, including the military, media and civil service. The laws also prohibited Jews from marrying people classified as “racially pure” Aryans.