PHIL 160 - November 9, 2026

Moral difference between animals and NRHAs, Cohen's Appeal to Kinds and its Worries

The Argument from Marginal Cases

P1.) If NRHA Farming is wrong, then Factory farming is wrong

P2.) NRHA Farming is wrong

C.) Factory Farming is wrong

Does Sumner think there’s a moral difference between animals and NRHAs? And why?

No because…

• Moral status directly proportional to the degree of its sentience

• Animals and NRHAs are equal to each other

Does Marquis think there’s a moral difference between animals and NRHAs? And why?

No

• Inherently bad to kill something if it is deprived of a valuable future like ours

• Animals and NHRAs both have no valuable future or both have a valuable future → either way NO difference

Does Toole think there’s a moral difference between animals and NRHAs? And why?

No

• Must see themselves as continuing being through time or desire their rights

• Animals and NHRAs both cannot see themselves as continuing through time and have no rights

Does Singer (Utilitarianism) think there’s a moral difference between animals and NRHAs? And why?

No

• It doesn’t matter who you are as long as you experience happiness that’s all that matters

• Both animals and humans can experience happiness → so NO difference

Does Carruthers (Rawlsian Contractualism) think there’s a moral difference between animals and NRHAs? And why?

No (Yes, but really NO)

• Rawlisan agents wouldn’t agree to something that would not agree to giving NHRAs or animals rights as it would prevent them from maximizing their liberty

• Both doesn’t get rights

Cohen’s Appeal to Kinds

It’s inherently bad to kill something if and only if it belongs to a kind whose typical member is rational

What are two examples of Cohen’s Appeal to Kinds?

• Bad to kill NRHA? (kind = human) → Yes, it would be bad

• Bad to kill Fluffy? (kind = dog) → No, it wouldn’t be bad

What are the three worries of Cohen’s Appeal to Kinds?

Worry 1: What’s the right way to divide things into kinds?

Worry 2: What’s “typical" of your kind” doesn’t seem morally relevant

Worry 3: Implausible Consequences

What are three examples for Worry 1 of Cohen’s Appeal to Kinds?

Mammals, baby, Sentient but not rational

What is the example for Worry 2 of Cohen’s Appeal to Kinds?

Heaven or Hell (Norcross)

• Hitler, Stalin, Pol Pot, Ghandi → Most are bad so all go to hell

• Mother Theresa, Rosa Parks, St. Catherine, Bathory the Blood Countess → Most are good so all you go to heaven

• None of your individual actions or characters matter just based off your “typical” kind

What is two examples for Worry 3 of Cohen’s Appeal to Kinds?

Fido the Genius Dog and Pluto People Pasture