Psychology of Memory: Processes, Storage, Retrieval, and Influences

Comprehensive practice flashcards covering encoding, storage stores (sensory, STM, LTM), consolidation, retrieval methods, brain structures (hippocampus and amygdala), schemas, suggestibility, and Elizabeth Loftus's false memory experiments.

What is memory defined as in cognitive psychology?

Memory is a complex mental process involving the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in the human brain, enabling individuals to retain and recall experiences, facts, emotions, and skills.

What are the three fundamental processes of memory?

Encoding, storage, and retrieval.

What occurs during the encoding stage of memory?

Information is converted into a usable form so that it can be neurologically placed and stored in memory.

What is storage, and what process enables memories to become long-lasting?

Storage is the retention of encoded information over time. For memories to become long-lasting, they go through consolidation, where information is organised and solidified for easier retrieval.

What is retrieval in memory processing?

The recovery of stored information and bringing it into conscious awareness for use when needed.

What is acoustic encoding?

The holding and processing of information in memory in the form of sound (e.g., reciting a poem aloud or listening to a podcast).

What is visual encoding?

The processing of information visually in the form of a picture in the mind (e.g., observing a map, reading a book, or watching a documentary).

What is semantic encoding?

Encoding information through its meaning (e.g., learning historical facts, comprehending scientific principles, or studying word definitions).

What are the three structural stores of memory identified in the Multi-Store Memory Model?

Sensory memory, Short-Term Memory ($\text{STM}$), and Long-Term Memory ($\text{LTM}$).

Who proposed the Multi-Store Memory Model in 1968?

Atkinson and Shiffrin.

What are the function, capacity, and duration of sensory memory?

Function: Receives sensory information from the environment; Capacity: Unlimited; Duration: About $0.2\text{ to }4.0\,\text{seconds}$ (occasionally up to $10\,\text{seconds}$).

What are the five subsystems (sensory registers) of sensory memory?

Iconic, echoic, haptic, olfactory, and gustatory memory.

What is iconic memory, and what is its typical duration?

The visual sensory memory register that briefly stores visual images after the physical stimulus has ceased; it generally disappears within half a second ($<0.5\,\text{seconds}$), depending on brightness.

What is echoic memory, and how long does it last?

A type of sensory memory specifically pertaining to auditory information (sounds) that retains noise after it ceases; it can last for several seconds.

What is haptic memory, and what is its typical duration?

Tactile sensory memory procured via the sense of touch through sensory receptors (detecting pain, pressure, pleasure, or itching); it typically lasts for about $2\,\text{seconds}$.

What are olfactory and gustatory sensory memories?

Olfactory memory is the brief retention and momentary processing of smell stimuli; gustatory memory is the temporary storage and recall of taste information.

What are the function, capacity, and duration of Short-Term Memory (STM)?

Function: Receives information from sensory memory; Capacity: $7 \pm 2$ pieces of information (or approximately $4$ chunks according to newer studies); Duration: $18\text{ to }20\,\text{seconds}$ (occasionally up to $30\,\text{seconds}$).

What three outcomes can occur to information held in Short-Term Memory?

Decay (fading because it is not used), Displacement (being pushed out by incoming information), or Rehearsal and transfer to Long-Term Memory.

Why is Short-Term Memory also referred to as working memory?

Because it holds information temporarily rather than permanently, actively 'working' to interpret, manipulate, and process incoming data.

What is maintenance rehearsal?

The continual repetition of information to retain it in short-term memory and increase the probability of it transferring to long-term memory.

What are mnemonics, and what examples are noted for memory consolidation?

Easily remembered phrases, abbreviations, or rhymes used to move information to long-term storage, such as 'ROY G BIV', 'I before E, except after C', and 'Thirty days hath September…'.

What are the capacity and duration of Long-Term Memory (LTM)?

Capacity: Unlimited; Duration: Unknown (potentially permanent).

How do retrieval methods differ between Short-Term Memory and Long-Term Memory?

Short-Term Memory is stored and retrieved sequentially (in the order received), whereas Long-Term Memory is stored and retrieved by association.

What are the three main types of long-term memories?

Procedural memories, Semantic memories, and Episodic memories.

What is procedural memory?

A type of long-term memory responsible for storing motor skills, learned actions, and procedures (e.g., riding a bicycle, typing, or tying shoelaces) that operates mostly unconsciously.

What is semantic memory?

A form of long-term memory that stores general knowledge, facts, meanings, and concepts detached from personal experience (e.g., knowing Paris is the capital of France or understanding the concept of gravity).

What is episodic memory?

The long-term memory system that stores specific personal, autobiographical experiences along with context such as time, place, participants, and associated emotions (e.g., recalling your high school graduation day).

What are the three ways to retrieve information from long-term memory?

Recall, recognition, and relearning.

How does recognition differ from relearning?

Recognition occurs when presented with items and identifying having encountered them before, whereas relearning occurs when re-studying previously forgotten material and learning it more quickly than the first time.

What are the three main types of memory recall?

Free recall (recalling items in any order), Cued recall (recalling items with prompts or guides), and Serial recall (recalling items in the exact chronological order of occurrence).

What are the primacy, recency, and cognitive effects in free recall?

Primacy effect: better recall of items presented at the beginning of a list; Recency effect: better recall of items at the end; Cognitive effect: successively recalling neighboring items.

What is the primary role of the hippocampus in memory, and what happens if it is damaged?

The hippocampus is crucial for the formation and consolidation of new memories (converting short-term to long-term) and procedural memories. Damage leaves individuals unable to consolidate new memories or learn/remember procedural skills.

What is the primary role of the amygdala in memory, and what happens if it is damaged?

The amygdala processes and stores emotionally charged memories. If damaged, individuals cannot form new emotional memories and cannot be conditioned against fear.

Why is human memory described as a reconstruction process rather than a video recorder?

The brain does not replay exact recordings; it pieces together stored fragments and actively fills in gaps based on expectations, current emotions, beliefs, and schemas.

What are schemas, and how can they distort memory?

Mental frameworks that guide interpretation and recollection; they cause distortion by leading people to 'remember' details consistent with their assumptions rather than reality.

What is the 'social contagion of memory'?

A phenomenon where individuals in a group setting adopt details from others' recollections into their own memory, leading to false consensus.

How does cultural variability affect memory recall?

Western individualistic cultures tend to prioritize personal, episodic memories, whereas Eastern collectivist cultures are more likely to recall memories focused on social and group-oriented contexts.

What is suggestibility in memory?

The vulnerability of memory to change based on the wording of questions, leading prompts, or external influences.

What is the misinformation effect?

The distortion or alteration of an original memory of an event caused by the introduction of incorrect or misleading information after the event occurred.

What was the critical question and the five verbs used in Elizabeth Loftus and Palmer's (1974) Experiment 1?

The question asked: 'How fast were the cars going when they ___ each other?', using the verbs: smashed, collided, bumped, hit, or contacted.

What did the findings of Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 1 demonstrate?

The wording of the question directly influenced speed estimations, with the most intense verb ('smashed') eliciting the highest speed estimates.

In Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 2, what were the mean speed estimates for the 'smashed' versus 'hit' conditions?

The 'smashed' group gave a mean speed estimate of $10.46\,\text{mph}$, whereas the 'hit' group gave a mean speed estimate of $8.00\,\text{mph}$.

In Loftus and Palmer's Experiment 2, how did participants respond one week later when asked if they saw broken glass?

Although no broken glass existed, $16$ participants in the 'smashed' condition falsely reported seeing broken glass, compared to $7$ in the 'hit' condition and $6$ in the control condition.

What major conclusion did Elizabeth Loftus draw regarding human memory models from her experiments?

Any model of memory must incorporate the process of reconstruction, as participants integrate false post-event information into their memory and cannot distinguish the original event from external sources.