05 choking under pressure and self regulation
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24 Terms
What is self-regulation? What are its three components and the definition by Zimmerman?
Definition (Zimmerman, 1989, 2006):
"The extent to which individuals are metacognitively, motivationally, and behaviorally proactive participants in their own learning process."
Three components:
Metacognitive: Planning, tracking, evaluating
Motivational: Self-efficacy, self-satisfaction
Behavioral: Acting on your plan, e.g., adapting your environment
Processes are cyclical: One phase triggers the next.
Key point: Self-regulation is not just thinking – it is acting on your thoughts and staying motivated.
Why is self-regulation important for athletic success? What does "Control the controllables" mean?
Athletic success depends on more than physical ability.
Athletes must manage their thoughts, motivation, and actions before, during, and after performance.
They must plan, execute, evaluate, and adapt their actions to optimize performance and continuous improvement.
"Control the controllables" (Michael Phelps; Bob Bowman):
Focus exclusively on what you can control.
Let go of what you can't.
Key point: Self-regulation separates good athletes from very good athletes.
What was the sample and method in Cleary & Zimmerman's (2001) basketball free-throw study?
Sample: N = 43 adolescent male high school students.
Experts (n = 15): High school varsity players, >70% game free-throw accuracy.
Non-Experts (n = 13): High school varsity players, <55% accuracy.
Novices (n = 15): High school students, no organized basketball past 7th grade.
Setting: Individual 10-min free-throw practice in a school gymnasium, outside the presence of peers.
Method: Online microanalytic tracking interview – captures real-time cognitive and motivational processes, measures shifts in self-regulation during active skill execution.
Key point: The study compared how different skill levels think and regulate during practice.
What did the forethought phase (pre-shooting) reveal in the basketball study?
Goals: Experts set more specific goals, e.g., "make 10 out of 10" or "keep my elbow in."
Strategies: Experts chose technique-oriented strategies, e.g., "bend your knees," "follow through."
Novices often had no strategy ("I don't know").
Self-efficacy (confidence to make 2 shots in a row):
Experts: 87.0
Non-experts: 77.3
Novices: 48.0
Key finding: Specific goals and technique-oriented strategies went along with higher self-efficacy.
What happened during the self-reflection phase after misses? How did attributions influence the next strategy?
After two misses:
Experts attributed the mistake to specific technique, e.g., "I didn't bend my knees."
Novices blamed lack of practice.
After successful shots, there were no group differences.
Self-regulation cycle: Attributions influenced the next strategy.
Example: Attribution "I missed because my elbow was going to the left" → Next strategy "I need to keep my elbow in."
Strength of link (phi, 0–1):
Technique: .38
Rhythm: .43
Distractions: .68
Key point: Self-reflection shapes the next forethought phase – it's a cyclical process.
What is the main take-away from the basketball study?
Experts are better not only because they know more, but because they use their knowledge consciously and strategically.
They plan specific goals, use technique-oriented strategies, and reflect on their performance to adjust.
Key point: Knowledge is necessary but insufficient – the strategic application of knowledge is what differentiates experts.
What was the research question and sample in Toering et al.'s (2009) youth soccer study?
Main question: Which self-regulation skills differentiate elite from non-elite youth soccer players?
Components measured:
Metacognitive: planning, self-monitoring, evaluation, reflection
Motivational: effort, self-efficacy
Participants: 444 male soccer players, 11–17 years.
159 players – professional club academies (elite)
285 players – non-elite (regional league)
Key point: The study compared elite and non-elite players on all self-regulation components.
What were the key results of the soccer study? Which factors significantly predicted elite performance?
Elite players scored higher on all self-regulation measures.
However, only two factors significantly predicted elite performance:
Reflection – thinking about performance to improve.
Effort – consistent hard work and persistence.
Other factors (planning, self-monitoring, evaluation, self-efficacy) did notsignificantly distinguish elite and non-elite players after statistical analysis.
Key statistics:
Players with high reflection scores were 4.9 times more likely to belong to the elite group.
Players with high effort scores were 7.1 times more likely to belong to the elite group.
Key point: Reflection and effort are the strongest distinguishing factors.
Why do reflection and effort matter for elite performance? What is the mechanism?
The authors suggest elite athletes:
Reflect better – know what needs improvement.
Invest more effort – actively work on those components.
This combination of Awareness & Action leads to:
Faster learning
Greater performance development
Key point: Reflection without effort is useless; effort without reflection is blind. Elite athletes combine both.
What should coaches do to foster self-regulation in athletes?
oaches should:
Encourage athletes to analyze their own performances
Ask reflective questions after practice and games
Help players identify strengths and weaknesses
Foster ownership of learning
Reward effort, persistence, and self-improvement – not only results
Key point: Coaches should create an environment where reflection is normal and effort is valued.
What specific techniques can be used to train self-regulation? (Process reflection, goal setting, strategies, effort, trainability)
Process reflection:
Shift focus from evaluating results ("That was wrong") to processes ("Why did you miss?").
53% of experts make specific technique attributions after failure vs 15% of non-experts.
Goal setting:
Set specific goals: replace "Concentrate!" with "Look at the back of the rim."
73% of experts set specific goals vs 38% of non-experts.
Specific goals directly increase technique strategy choice (phi = 0.44) and self-efficacy (r = 0.48).
Technique-oriented strategies:
Address specific movement characteristics (e.g., wrist follow-through) rather than general effort.
60% of experts select technique strategies after misses vs 20% of non-experts.
Effort:
Appreciate & value task effort – the primary motivational engine sustaining long-term deliberate practice.
High effort players are 7.07x more likely to be in elite academies.
Trainability:
Self-regulation is not an innate trait but a trainable metacognitive skill.
Experts and non-experts possessed identical declarative knowledge (1.53 vs 1.54/3) – knowledge is necessary but insufficient; athletes must be taught how to apply it.
Key point: Self-regulation can be coached and trained like any other skill.
What is the conclusion about good vs very good athletes? How does visualization relate to self-regulation?
Conclusion:
Good athletes have strong physical abilities and commitment.
Very good athletes distinguish themselves through superior self-regulation – they manage emotions, motivation, and behaviour consistently to stay focused on long-term goals, even under pressure or setbacks.
Visualization (Michael Phelps):
Movement-imagination vs physical execution activates many of the same brain areas.
Strengthens movement patterns, improves focus, prepares the body.
Base: relaxation.
Example: At Beijing 2008, water came into his goggles – he swam 175m out of 200m (butterfly) blind and still won gold with a world record.
Key point: Visualization is a self-regulation tool that prepares the body and mind for performance.
What is "choking under pressure"? What are the three key elements of the definition?
Definition (Mesagno & Hill, 2013):
"The acute, detrimental effect of pressure on an athlete's performance when self-expected standards are normally achievable, resulting from anxiety."
Three key elements:
Suboptimal performance: Worse than normal training standards (Baumeister, 1984).
High skill prerequisite: The athlete possesses full capability to execute the skill.
High motivation: Strong active striving for peak performance outcome.
Key point: Choking is not just "playing badly" – it is a performance drop that occurs despite the athlete having the ability and motivation to succeed.
In which situations does choking typically occur?
Pressure encompasses any factor increasing performer anxiety during decisive sporting moments (Baumeister & Showers, 1986).
Competitions: Decisive tournament moments like penalty shoot-outs.
Audience & Media: Spectator crowds and public broadcast scrutiny.
Contingencies: Direct financial rewards or severe career punishments.
Ego Relevance: Threats to athletic identity and social standing.
Key point: Choking is triggered by situations where the athlete feels judged, threatened, or under high stakes.
What are the two cognitive models of choking (Gröpel & Mesagno, 2019)?
Distraction Model:
Anxiety shifts focus from task-relevant to irrelevant cues.
Internal cues: Worries about score outcomes and failure consequences.
External cues: Crowd noise and opponent behavior exceed capacity.
The athlete gets distracted and cannot focus on the task
Self-Focus Model:
Anxiety triggers conscious monitoring – step-by-step movement control (Beilock & Carr, 2001).
Reinvestment Theory: Athletes reinvest explicit rule-based mechanics (Masters, 1992).
Motor disruption: Interferes with smooth automatic skill execution.
The athlete over-thinks the movement and breaks it down.
What are the three intervention categories for choking? Which strategies are most effective?
Distraction-Based:
Primary mechanism: Promote task-relevant attentional focus.
Strategies: Pre-performance routines (PPR), Quiet Eye training, deep breathing.
Self-Focus-Based:
Primary mechanism: Prevent explicit rule reinvestment.
Strategies: Left-hand dynamic contractions, dual-tasking, analogy learning.
Acclimatisation:
Primary mechanism: Adapt athlete to anxiety feelings.
Strategies: Simulated pressure training, video surveillance, consequence drills.
Review take-away: Pre-performance routines, Quiet Eye, left-hand contractions, and pressure acclimatisation show the strongest empirical reliability.
Key point: Different interventions target different mechanisms – choose based on the type of choking.
What was the aim and method of the 2024 choking study?
Aim:
Quantify the negative consequences of choking.
Raise awareness of its effects in competitive sport.
Compare high- and low-performance athletes.
Methods:
Participants: 165 competitive athletes (102 men, 63 women).
32 different sports.
Current and former athletes.
Online questionnaire about choking experiences and consequences.
Key point: This study looked at real-world experiences of choking across many sports.
What were the key findings of the 2024 choking study?
77% experienced choking.
18.25 episodes on average per year.
Reduced enjoyment of sport.
High-performance athletes showed more:
Psychological problems
Maladaptive behaviours
More likely to seek psychological support
Key point: Choking is common and has serious negative consequences, especially for high-performance athletes.
What did the authors conclude from the study?
Choking can have serious negative consequences.
Often associated with negative emotions and behaviours.
Some athletes withdraw from sport.
High-performance athletes may be particularly affected.
More awareness and psychological support are needed.
Key point: Choking is not just a performance issue – it is a mental health concern.
What mental health risks are associated with high-performance sport and choking?
Social Rank Model: Fear of losing status and judgment by coaches, fans, and social media, as well as racism.
Maladaptive Coping: 24.3% of high-performance athletes vs 7.0% of low-performance athletes (binge drinking, drugs).
Clinical Impact: 8.5% diagnosed depression rate in high-performance athletes; 10.0% suicidal ideation.
Key point: High-performance athletes are more vulnerable to mental health problems – choking can trigger or worsen these.
What is the "downward psychological spiral" caused by choking?
Fear of Failure: Avoidance of high-pressure situations and lowered self-confidence.
Pre-Match Jitters & Rumination: Obsessing over mistakes before or during performance; sleepless nights, physical play.
Loss of Self-Trust: Pressure to succeed becomes the exact reason athletes fail.
Key point: Choking can create a self-reinforcing cycle: pressure → anxiety → failure → more fear → more choking.
What happened in Guillermo Coria's career? How does it illustrate choking and mental health decline?
2004 French Open Final Collapse: Led 2–0 against Gastón Gaudio, then lost 3 straight sets.
2005: Service yips and double faults despite reaching finals vs Rafael Nadal.
2006+: Chronic struggles – worsening service yips compounded by recurring shoulder injuries.
2009: Retired from professional tennis at just 27 years of age.
Key point: Coria's collapse was not a single event – it led to long-term psychological and physical decline, ultimately ending his career early.
What strategies can help athletes cope with choking and its mental health effects?
Professional Therapy & Mental Health First-Aid: Sport psychological support and de-stigmatizing help-seeking via trained coaches.
Self-Compassion: Reduces self-criticism and accelerates emotional recovery after failure (Ceccarelli et al., 2019).
"Write and Rip" Technique: Writing down anxieties and physically ripping the paper frees working memory capacity.
Unorthodox Techniques (e.g., Gerwyn Price): Wearing noise-cancelling ear defenders on stage to block external crowd distractions.
Key point: Recovery requires both professional support and practical coping strategies.
What is the overall take-away about choking under pressure and its influence on mental health?
Choking is a real, common, and serious phenomenon in elite sport.
It occurs when pressure exceeds the athlete's ability to cope, leading to suboptimal performance despite high skill and motivation.
Choking can have serious negative consequences for mental health, including depression, anxiety, maladaptive coping, and even suicidal ideation.
Awareness, prevention, and psychological support are essential for athletes, coaches, and sports organizations.
Key point: Choking is not just a performance problem – it is a mental health issue that must be taken seriously.