Psychology - Issues and Debates

free will

human beings are self determining and free to choose our thoughts and actions

determinism

suggests that individuals traits and behaviours are shaped by internal or external forces out of their control

hard determinism (fatalism)

free will is not possible all behaviour is predetermined by external/internal forces and out of an individuals control

soft determinism

in the middle of fatalism and free will, human behaviour is determined by external/internal forces BUT we are able to exercise a degree of free will over the way we behave

biological determinism

belief that behaviour is determined by biological factors - genes, evolution, neurological structure, hormones

environmental determinism

the belief that behaviour is determined by factors in our environment (culture, social group, education)

psychic determinism

behaviour is governed by unconscious forces, instincts and drives

strength of free will - practical value

practical value - we exercise free choice I everyday life, even if we don’t having the belief we do can improve out mental health. Roberts et al (2000) looked at adolescents who had strong belief in fatalism, those who did were more vulnerable to depression. this suggests that we if we believe we have free will, it has a positive impact on our mental health.

limitation of free will - brain scan evidence

brain scan evidence does not support free will - Libet et al (1983) instructed participants to pick a random moment to flick their wrist, and measured their brain activity while doing so, participants had to say when they felt the conscious will to move. he found that the unconscious brain activity leading up to the conscious decision to move came around half a second before the person consciously felt they had decided to move. even basic experiences of free will are actually determined by our brain before we are aware

strength of determinism - scientific, behaviour predictions

scientific and allows behaviour to be predicted - E.g biological determinism suggests that behaviour is influenced by genes. Twin studies Bouchard et al (1990) found that identical twins raised in apart showed similarities in intelligence, suggesting genetics influence behaviour. supports determinism, behaviour may be caused by biological factors, allowing psychologists to make predictions about human behaviour

limitation of determinism - legal system

position of legal system on responsibility - fatalism claims that individual choice is not the cause of behaviour. this doesn’t align with they way our legal system works. in a court of law, an offender is held responsible for their actions. the main principle is that they exercise free will when committing the crime. suggests that in the real world, deterministic arguments do not work

Nature

behaviour is a product of innate biological genetic factors

Nurture

behaviour is the product of environmental influences

interactionist

both nature and nurture play a part to shape and individuals behaviours

hereditary

genetic transmission of mental and physical characteristics from one gen to another

environment

any influence on human behaviour that is non-genetic

hereditary coefficient

numerical value ranging from 0-1 indicated the extent that the characteristic has a genetic basis. 1 is entirely genetic, 0 is entirely environmental

why do many psychologists now take the interactionist approach (refer to Lerner)

the nature nurture s almost impossible to answer because it is impossible top disentangle nature and nurture influences - environmental influences begin as soon as the Childs life begins

what is the diathesis stress model

uses the interaction of nature and nurture for explaining mental illness

what does diathesis consist of?

predisposition, nature, genes, brain structure

what about stress?

trauma. abuse, loss, nurture

what do these form together

psychopathology

case study: Tienari et al 2004 Finnish adoptive studies

compared incidence of SZ among three groups:

1. adoptees with a biological parents with SZ, not in a dysfunctional adoptive family

2. adoptees without a biological parent with SZ, but placed in a dysfunctional adoptive family

3. adoptees who had both - most likely to develop SZ which supports the diathesis-stress model

what are Epigenetics

change in our genetic activity without a change in genetic code, due to environmental factors and our lifestyle. aspects of life style (E.g smoking) leave epigenetic marks on our DNA, tell out bodies which genes to use and which to ignore

what can these go on to influence

future generations - offers a third variable in this debate, life experience of previous generations

what is hot housing:

extreme form of early enrichment, intensive education

what are some ethical concerns of hothousing

• risks emotional harm - low self esteem

• disrupts natural development

• undermines chuldren’s autonomy

• behavioural manipulation

strength of nature - evidence of nature in behaviour

there is evidence supporting the role of nature in behaviour. Bouchard et al. (1990) found that identical twins raised apart showed similarities in intelligence. This suggests that genetics influence behaviour, supporting the nature side of the debate. Therefore, nature is a valid explanation for some human behaviour because similarities between twins suggest that genes influence behaviour.

limitation for nature - reductionist

that nature can be reductionist. It explains behaviour mainly through genetics, ignoring environmental influences such as upbringing. For example, identical twins may share similar environments as well as genes. Therefore, nature alone cannot fully explain behaviour because environmental factors, such as upbringing, also influence how a person develops

Nurture strength - behavioural interventions

leads to effective behavioural interventions. techniques like behaviour shaping and aversion therapy - use conditioning principles to reduce unwanted behaviour. these treatments show that behaviour can be modified through reinforcements or association, showing clear real world usefulness of environmental learning. strengthens the nurture side as it drives environmental principles can successfully change behaviour.

weakness - unethical

environmental manipulation can become unethical/harmful. hothousing involves intense environmental pressure to accelerate learning or behaviour change. this shows how nurture can push behaviour through extreme conditioning, but often causes stress, anxiety and poor long term outcomes. suggests environmental learning alone can oversimplify behaviour and ignore biological limits. this weakens the nurture argument because it shows environmental control can be damaging and unrealistic

Reductionism

based on the idea of parsimony which is the idea that complex phenomena should be explained in the simplest term possible and it seeks to analyse behaviour by breaking it down into in constituent parts

biological reductionism

based on the premise that we are biological organisms made up of physiological structures and processes - behaviour is always some level biological and can be explained through neurological structures, genetics and evolution

Environmental reductionism

suggests that only observable behaviours should be studied and all behaviour can be broken up tiny simple stimulus-response links and are measurable in laboratory

Holism

• looks at a system as a whole

• sees any attempt to subdivide behaviour or experiences into smaller units (appropriately)

• understanding the individual parts of a person does not necessarily help us understand them as a whole, as their behaviour results from the interaction of different factors

Reductionism - Levels of Explanation

suggests that there are different levels of viewing the same phenomena in psychology, begins at the highest level and progressively reduce to consider behaviours at component elements

what are the levels

• highest level - consider cultural and social explanations of behaviour

• middle level - consider psychological explanations

• lower level - focus on biological explanations

strength of reduction - scientific credibility strengthened

strengthens scientific credibility - breaking behaviour up into simple measurable components allows psychologists to use objective controlled methods. E.g biological reductionism isolates neurotransmitters like serotonin to study their causal role in depression. this allows theories to be testable, replicable and easier to falsify

limitation of reductionism - oversimplifies

oversimplifies complex human behaviour - focuses on one level of explanation, ignoring other factors like social, cognitive and cultural influences. for example SZ purely through dopamine, ignoring family dysfunction, trauma and cognitive deficits. leads to incomplete theories and treatments that only address part of the problem

strength of holism - complete explanation

offers a more complete explanation, especially of human group behaviour, as some behaviours cannot be understood at the level of individual or specific factors. Terrier(2004) found that a combination of medication and CBT resulted in much greater symptom reduction than just one individually. this highlight that holistic explanations provide a much more detailed and complete explanation of many human behaviours .

limitation of holism - difficult in terms of scientific testing

explanations difficult with regards to rigorous scientific testing. this is because concepts are often vague and complex. E.g holistic humanistic concepts are often criticised as having lack of empirical evidence due to their abstract nature. in addition it is difficult to use these theories to establish clear predictions because cause and effect is hard to establish. meaning these explanations are not desirable if psychology is to be viewed as a science and also be difficult to establish the most influential factor (e.g when deciding on therapy for a person suffering from mental illness)

Gender and Culture: what is universality

when conclusions can be drawn and applied to everyone in the wider population

Gender bias

notion that research or theory may offer a view that does not justifiably represent the experience and/or behaviour of women or men individually or specifically

there have been some researchers that have been accused of gender bias one being freud, why?

his theory of psychosexual development, castration anxiety, penis envy, suggest women are a weaker sex and therefore inferior to males (reflects patriarchal view of victorian era) he also saw femininity as a expression of failed masculinity - females are psychologically defined by the fact they realise they are not men

what about Kohlberg?

his theory of moral development which is based largely on a longitudinal study utilises an entirely male sample. this can be argued to be androcentric - male centred - and suffering from beta bias - minimising differences

Alpha bias

when the differences between male and females are exaggerated and overestimated. this can lead to stereotypes or may devalue one gender

Beta bias

when theories ignore the differences between men and women (minimise them). leads to explanations that ignore the specific needs/aspects of one gender

Androcentrism

when male behaviour, male samples or male experiences are treated as the norm, meaning female behaviour is judged as deviant, abnormal or less important. it happens when psychological theories are built on all male research but are still generalised to everyone - creates a distorted view of human behaviour, because what is presented as “universal psychology” is actaillt just male psychology

explain how gender bias has serious negative implications for psychological theory and assumptions about human behaviour

• distorted theories: gender biased research produces theories that do not accurately represent human behaviour, reducing validity

• perpetuation of stereotypes: biased findings reinforce harmful social beliefs

• reduced opportunities: gender bias can justify unequal treatment or expectations in society

how can this be damaging for women

• reduced representation in research: meaning women’s needs are not considered when developing therapies, policies or interpretations

• pathologist normal female behaviour: making women appear emotionally unstable or irrational

• limit access to appropriate treatment: as diagnostic criteria may be based on male patterns

• reinforce social inequality: supporting stereotypes that restrict women’s roles, opportunities and autonomy

awareness of gender bias has resulted in what

major practical and theoretical applications - current researchers are much more careful when designing their studies and developing their theories in order to avoid possible gender bias. some psychologists now even attempt to develop theories that emphasise the important or value of women - this helps challenge gender stereotypes

culture bias

when the “norm” behaviour is only judged from the standpoint of one culture and any behaviour that deviates from this standard will be viewed as abnormal

alpha bias

a theory assumes that cultural groups are extremely different

beta bias

real cultural differences are ignored or minimised, and all people are assumed to be the same, resulting in universal research designs and conclusions

ethnocentrism

is a particular form of culture bias and is a belief that one cultural group is superior in psychological research. can be upheld by the belief that any behaviour that does not conform to the cultures model (usually western) are somehow deficient or abnormal

which research can we use as an example and why?

Ainsworth’s strange situation:

• based on American child rearing values

• defines secure attachment as showing moderate distress on separation and comfort on reunion - typical American norms- not all cultures

• when used in other cultures, behaviours are judges by American standards, leading to misclassification

• E.g German infants usually labelled insecure avoidant according to the SS due to independence, but this reflects German values (self reliance) not poor attachment

• therefore the SS is ethnocentric because it assumed western attachment and behaviours are universal and may pathologies normal cultural differences

Etic + example

looks at behaviour from the outside of a given culture and attempts to describe behaviours that are universal (can be argues that the SS was an imposed Etic, based on western ideas. in Japan infants barely experience separation, appearing insecure resistant, which is the norm in that culture)

Emic + example

looks within cultures and identifies behaviours that are specific to that culture (Berry (1967) studied the Inuit in Canada using an emic approach. He investigated how Inuit culture influenced perception, using culturally relevant tasks and considering their own experiences and values. This allowed him to understand behaviour from the Inuit people's perspective, rather than imposing Western cultural assumptions)

Cultural relativism

the idea that the things that are observed in research may only make sense from the perspective of the culture being observed - they cannot be applied to other cultures.