Comprehensive Review of General, Inorganic, Organic, and Medicinal Chemistry

Vocabulary practice flashcards covering fundamental chemistry laws, atomic models, bonding theories, inorganic compounds and toxicities, organic nomenclature, named reactions, and medicinal chemistry pharmacophores with relevant structures.

Law of Conservation of Mass/Matter

A fundamental chemistry law formulated by Antoine Lavoisier stating that mass and matter remain constant throughout chemical processes, being neither created nor destroyed.

Law of Definite Proportions (Proust's Law)

A law stating that a given chemical compound always contains its constituent elements in a fixed and exact ratio by mass, regardless of source or method of preparation.

Law of Multiple Proportions

A law formulated by John Dalton stating that when two elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combine with a fixed mass of the other are in small whole-number ratios.

Cathode Ray Tube Experiment

An experimental technique conducted by J.J. Thomson that allowed the measurement of the mass-to-charge ratio ($m/z$) of the electron.

Oil Drop Experiment

An experiment performed by Robert A. Millikan that accurately determined the electric charge and mass of the electron.

AN OX ELECT OUT

A mnemonic indicating that oxidation occurs at the anode, where electrons are released or leave the electrode.

RED CAT ELECT IN

A mnemonic indicating that reduction occurs at the cathode, where electrons enter or are accepted by the electrode.

Isotopes

Atoms of the same element that possess the same atomic number (number of protons) but differ in atomic mass due to varying numbers of neutrons.

Isobars

Atoms of different chemical elements that share the same atomic mass number but differ in atomic number.

Isotones

Nuclides of different chemical elements that have the exact same number of neutrons but different numbers of protons.

Keesom Orientation Force

An intermolecular dipole-dipole force of attraction occurring between two polar molecules, such as between water molecules.

Debye Induction Force

An intermolecular dipole-induced dipole force of attraction that occurs between a polar molecule and a nonpolar molecule (e.g., water and benzene).

London Dispersion Force

The weakest intermolecular force of attraction, operating via induced dipole-induced dipole interactions between nonpolar atoms or molecules (e.g., benzene and benzene).

Aufbau Principle

An electronic configuration principle stating that electrons occupy available atomic subshells of the lowest energy levels before filling higher energy levels.

Pauli's Exclusion Principle

A quantum mechanical principle stating that no two electrons in an atom can have the identical set of four quantum numbers.

Hund's Rule

A rule stating that orbitals within the same subshell are each occupied singly with parallel spins before any orbital is doubly occupied, maximizing system stability.

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

A fundamental quantum theory stating the impossibility of simultaneously and accurately determining both the exact position and momentum (velocity) of a particle.

Graham's Law

A gas law stating that the rate of effusion and diffusion of two gases is inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities, provided temperature and pressure remain constant.

Fick's 1st Law

A law stating that the diffusion rate of a liquid or gas across a plane is directly proportional to its concentration gradient (flowing from higher to lower concentration).

Henry's Law

A gas law describing that the solubility of a gas in a liquid increases with higher gas pressure and lower temperature in a closed container.

Triple Point

The specific thermodynamic condition of temperature and pressure at which solid, liquid, and gas phases of a substance coexist simultaneously in equilibrium.

Le Chatelier's Principle

A principle stating that when an external stress is applied to a chemical system at equilibrium, the system shifts its equilibrium position in a direction that counteracts the stress.

Lewis Acid

An electron-deficient chemical species (electrophile) capable of accepting an electron pair from a donor base.

Lewis Base

An electron-rich chemical species (nucleophile) capable of donating an electron pair to an electron-poor acid.

Pearson's HSAB Concept

A chemical principle stating that hard acids preferentially bind to hard bases to form ionic complexes, while soft acids preferentially bind to soft bases to form covalent complexes.

Common Ion Effect

The suppression of the ionization of a weak electrolyte caused by the addition of a strong electrolyte containing an ion common to that dissolved substance.

Noyes-Whitney Equation

A mathematical relationship establishing that dissolution rate is directly proportional to the surface area of the solute, solute concentration at the boundary layer, and diffusion coefficient.

Universal Antidote (ATM)

A composite emergency antidote consisting of Activated Charcoal, Tannic Acid, and Magnesium Oxide in a $2:1:1$ ratio used against poisoning by weak acids and weak bases.

Temporary Water Hardness

Hardness caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium bicarbonate salts, which can be softened by boiling to precipitate $CaCO_3$ or by the addition of $Ca(OH)_2$.

Permanent Water Hardness

Hardness caused by dissolved calcium and magnesium sulfate or chloride salts, which can only be eliminated through the use of ion exchange resins.

Wilson's Disease

A metabolic disorder caused by abnormal copper accumulation in tissues resulting in bronze-like skin and hepatolenticular degeneration, treated specifically with penicillamine.

Argyria

A condition characterized by permanent bluish-gray discoloration of the skin and mucous membranes resulting from chronic silver toxicity, managed with sodium chloride.

Minamata Disease

A severe neurological syndrome caused by poisoning from organic mercury compounds, presenting with ataxia, numbness, and sensory loss.

Itai-Itai Disease

A painful degenerative bone and renal disorder ('it hurts, it hurts') caused by chronic cadmium poisoning, treated with calcium EDTA.

Shaver's Disease

Bauxite pneumoconiosis characterized by lung damage and progressive pulmonary fibrosis caused by occupational inhalation of aluminum oxide dust.

Plumbism (Saturnism)

Chronic lead poisoning characterized clinically by peripheral motor neuropathy presenting as wrist drop and foot drop, treated with calcium EDTA or succimer.

Cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene (CPP) Ring

A steroid nucleus consisting of 17 carbon atoms arranged as three fused cyclohexane rings (A, B, C) and one cyclopentane ring (D).

Purine

A bicyclic, aromatic heterocyclic organic compound consisting of a pyrimidine ring fused to an imidazole ring, serving as the core scaffold for adenine and guanine.

Quinoline

A heterocyclic aromatic bicyclic compound composed of a benzene ring fused to a pyridine ring at adjacent carbon positions, with the nitrogen atom at position 1.

Isoquinoline

A heterocyclic aromatic bicyclic compound isomeric to quinoline, where the nitrogen atom is located at position 2 of the fused pyridine ring.

Indole

An aromatic heterocyclic bicyclic compound consisting of a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring.

Benzimidazole

A bicyclic heterocyclic aromatic compound consisting of a benzene ring fused to an imidazole ring containing two nitrogen atoms.

Quinazoline

A bicyclic aromatic heterocycle composed of two fused six-membered rings: a benzene ring fused to a pyrimidine ring containing two nitrogen atoms.

Markovnikov's Rule

A regiochemical rule stating that during electrophilic addition of an unsymmetrical reagent to an alkene, the electrophile ($H$) bonds to the double-bonded carbon bearing more hydrogen substituents, while the nucleophile ($X$) bonds to the carbon with fewer hydrogens.

Baeyer's Test for Unsaturation

A qualitative test for alkenes using cold, basic or neutral potassium permanganate ($KMnO_4$), yielding vicinal diols (glycols) accompanied by a brown precipitate of manganese dioxide ($MnO_2$).

Lucas Test

A qualitative differentiation test for alcohols using concentrated $HCl$ and $ZnCl_2$ that forms an insoluble alkyl chloride layer based on carbocation stability (tertiary > secondary > primary > methanol).

Tollen's Test (Silver Mirror Test)

An analytical redox test employing ammoniacal silver nitrate ($Ag(NH_3)_2NO_3$) to detect aldehydes, producing a reflective silver mirror on reaction vessel walls as metallic silver precipitating upon oxidation of the carbonyl.

Phase I Metabolism

Non-synthetic drug biotransformation reactions—consisting of oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis—that unmask or introduce polar functional handles ($-OH$, $-NH_2$, $-COOH$) on a drug molecule.

Phase II Metabolism

Synthetic drug conjugation reactions (such as glucuronidation, sulfation, and acetylation) that couple polar endogenous substrates to functional groups, forming water-soluble, inactive excretion products.

Phenol Coefficient

The numerical ratio of the highest dilution of a test antimicrobial disinfectant to that of standard pure phenol required to completely kill Salmonella typhi under standardized time and temperature parameters.

6-Aminopenicillanic Acid (6-APA)

The fundamental biosynthetic and synthetic core nucleus of all penicillin antibiotics, composed of a strained four-membered beta-lactam ring fused to a five-membered thiazolidine ring.

7-Aminocephalosporanic Acid (7-ACA)

The fundamental core nucleus of cephalosporin antibiotics, structurally comprised of a four-membered beta-lactam ring fused directly to a six-membered dihydrothiazine ring.

Carbapenem Core

A broad-spectrum beta-lactam scaffold differing structurally from penicillins by replacing the thiazolidine sulfur atom with a carbon atom and introducing an endocyclic double bond.

1,4-Dihydro-4-oxo-3-pyridinecarboxylic Acid

The fundamental bicyclic pharmacophore essential for the antimicrobial activity of quinolone and fluoroquinolone antibiotics.

Sulfonamide Core

An antibacterial pharmacophore requiring an unsubstituted para-amino benzene ring directly linked to a primary or secondary sulfonamide group, acting as a competitive antimetabolite of PABA.

Chemo Man

A clinical mnemonic anatomical diagram mapping organ-specific adverse toxicities of antineoplastic agents (such as bleomycin pulmonary fibrosis, cisplatin nephrotoxicity/ototoxicity, and doxorubicin cardiotoxicity).

Barbituric Acid

The parent heterocyclic nucleus ($2,4,6\text{-trioxohexahydropyrimidine}$) from which sedative-hypnotic barbiturate drugs are synthesized via alkyl or aryl substitutions at the C-5 position.

Phenytoin

An anticonvulsant medication ($5,5\text{-diphenyl-2,4-imidazolidinedione}$) containing a hydantoin ring with two phenyl groups at C-5, clinically associated with ataxia and gingival hyperplasia.

Aspirin (Acetylsalicylic Acid)

A salicylate ester compound synthesized from salicylic acid that acts as an analgesic, antipyretic, and antiplatelet agent via irreversible cyclooxygenase inhibition.

Paracetamol (Acetaminophen)

A synthetic non-opiate analgesic and antipyretic compound consisting of an N-acetyl-p-aminophenol structure, which undergoes metabolic activation to the hepatotoxic intermediate NAPQI.

Morphine

A potent natural opiate alkaloid characterized by a pentacyclic skeleton with free phenolic and allylic hydroxyl groups at positions C-3 and C-6 and a basic tertiary nitrogen.

Gray Baby Syndrome

A potentially fatal neonatal toxicity resulting from chloramphenicol administration due to immature hepatic glucuronyl transferase activity and poor renal clearance, causing ashen skin and circulatory collapse.

Fanconi-like Syndrome

A renal proximal tubular dysfunction syndrome characterized by polyuria, glucosuria, and acidosis resulting from the ingestion of degraded, expired tetracycline products.