Human Communications Exam 2

Interpersonal Communication

The process of exchanging information, feelings, meaning, and ideas between two or more people through verbal and nonverbal messages

Reasons to study interpersonal communication

Evolutionary survival, health/well-being, fulling human needs, and relationship building

Instrumental Goals

Communicating to "get things done" or meet practical, tangible needs in your daily or long-term life

Relationship Maintenance Goals

Communicating to build, develop, maintain, or repair personal connections and social bonds (apologizing after an argument, etc.)

Self-Presentation Goals

Communicating to influence how other people perceive you and to construct a specific identity or image (speaking professionally in a job interview, etc.)

Competing Style

High concern for self and a low concern for others; communication is typically assertive, aggressive, or coercive.

Avoiding Style

Low concern for self and a low concern for others; communication is characterized by physical or emotional withdrawal, deflection, or passive-aggressive behavior

Accommodating Style

Low concern for self and a high concern for others; Communication is yielding, compliant, and submissive

Compromising Style

Moderate concern for self and a moderate concern for others; communication involves active negotiation where both parties offer concessions

Collaborating Style

High concern for self and a high concern for others; communication is cooperative, highly communicative, and relies on structured problem-solving

Criticism

Involves comments that evaluate another person’s personality, behavior, appearance, or life choices; casual observations can put the listener on the defensive and spark an argument

Demand

A demand is a request or expectation placed on someone else that is perceived as unfair, controlling, or irrelevant; When a person feels pressured or coerced without a fair explanation, they often resist or push back

Cumulative Annoyance

Cumulative annoyance is the gradual buildup of frustration over small, repeated behaviors that eventually boils over; Repressed annoyance and eventual outburst often seeming completely disproportionate to the “crime”

Rejection

Rejection occurs when one person feels ignored, dismissed, or invalidated by the other

Pre-Negotiation

Initial stage occurs before the formal discussion begins; previewing the topic with the other party, analyze the instrumental, relational, and self-presentation goals, and establish an ideal outcome alongside your bottom line.

Opening

You set the emotional and interpersonal tone for the conversation; establishing common ground and building a cooperative atmosphere by using inclusive "we" language

Exploration

Centers on a high level of information exchange to understand the full scope of the conflict; parties share their perspectives, ask clarifying questions, and listen actively

Bargaining

The parties engage in give-and-take by making proposals and counterproposals; making reasonable concessions and remaining flexible rather than rigidly defending a single demand

Settlement

Both parties decide on a mutually acceptable proposal and close the negotiation; summarize the agreed-upon terms to prevent misunderstandings and establish a plan to ensure the agreement succeeds

Primary Emotions

Innate, universal, and rapid expressions that last for short periods and typically occur as a direct reaction to an outside stimulus (joy, anger, fear)

Secondary Emotions

Non-reflexive, higher-order emotions that are not as innate and lack universally recognizable facial expressions (love, shame, pride)

Self-Disclosure

the purposeful revelation of personal information, including observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs; varying in depth

Social Penetration Theory

The theory that relationships develop through a reciprocal process of self-disclosure that shifts in depth over time

Open Area (Upper Left Plane)

Information that is known both to ourselves and to others; the amount of information shifts depending on the relationship, starting small with strangers and growing larger with close friends or family.

Blind Area (Upper Right Pane)

Information that is known to others, but not to ourselves; shrink this pane by soliciting feedback and practicing perception checking.

Hidden Area (Bottom Left Pane)

This pane contains private information that is known to us but not to others; self-disclosure moves details from the hidden pane into the open pane

Unknown Area (Bottom Right Pane)

Represents information that is unknown both to ourselves and to others; discovering what lies in this area requires stepping outside your comfort zone

Self-Disclosure: Observations

Statements describing objective facts, actions, or events that you have experienced or done

Self-Disclosure: Thoughts

Conclusions, opinions, or judgments that you form based on your experiences or observations

Self-Disclosure: Feelings

Expressions of your internal emotional states or reactions to an experience

Self-Disclosure: Needs

Statements communicating your desires, wants, or what you require from a situation or person

Knapp’s Initiating Stage

People size each other up and try to make a favorable first impression.

Knapp’s Experimenting Stage

Both individuals search for common ground, shared interests, and basic background info

Knapp’s Intensifying Stage

The relationship becomes more personal and informal; the depth of self-disclosure increases.

Knapp’s Integrating Stage

The two individuals merge their identities, routines, and social circles into a shared life.

Knapp’s Bonding Stage

A public, formal ritual or commitment is made to cement the relationship.

Knapp’s Differentiating Stage

Partners begin to pull back from the shared identity and emphasize their individual differences and autonomy.

Knapp’s Circumscribing Stage

Communication volume and quality decrease significantly.

Knapp’s Stagnating Stage

The relationship feels stalled, hollow, or trapped.

Knapp’s Avoiding Stage

Partners physically, emotionally, or digitally distance themselves from each other.

Knapp’s Terminating Stage

The official end or dissolution of the relationship.

The Social Exchange Theory

Entails the weighing of the costs and rewards in a given relationship

The Attraction Theory

The force that propels us to launch and develop relationships (physical attraction, social attraction, task attraction)

Matching Hypothesis

People with similar levels of attractiveness will pair together

Uncertainty Reduction Theory

When strangers meet, their primary goal is to reduce initial discomfort and unpredictability by gathering information and predicting each other's behavior

Predicted Outcome Theory

We form and pursue relationships when we predict that the effort will be worth the potential rewards

How does Social Exchange Theory differ from Equity Theory?

Social Exchange Theory focuses on personal profit and individual expectations, while the Equity Theory focuses on mutual fairness, requiring both partners to have an equal ratio of rewards to costs

Overbenefitted

When a person receives more rewards than costs in a relationship compared to what their partner receives

Underbenefitted

When a person feels they are putting more costs or effort into the relationship than they are getting back in rewards

Types of friendships

Reciprocal, associative, and receptive

Definitions of family

Structural (legal criteria, family of origin vs. orientation), Task-Orientation (shared daily behavior), Transactional (shared identity)

Family Time Rituals

Patterned Interactions (daily interactions), Family Traditions (less frequent, more structured), Family Celebrations (formal, public events)

Conversation/Conformity Orientations

Consensual families (high conversation, high conformity), Pluralistic (high conversation, low conformity), Protective (low conversation, high conformity), Laissez-Faire (low conversation, low conformity)

Sudden Death vs. Passing Away

"Sudden death" uses concrete, denotative language to state a blunt fact, whereas "passing away" is an abstract euphemism that relies on softer connotations to cushion emotional pain

Truth Bias

The natural tendency to assume that people are telling the truth, especially when we know and like them

Homogeneity

the tendency for people to maintain close relationships with others who share similar backgrounds, values, communication styles, and demographic traits

Two Ways Someone Becomes A Leader

Designated Leader (appointed) and Emergent Leader (not officially elected, gradually build trust of group)

Styles of Leadership

Autocratic (rely on power of title), Democratic (more shared responsibility), and Liassez-faire (hands-off)

Modern Styles of Leadership

Directive (provide specific structure), participated (group is included in decisions), supportive (emotional well-being of group is prioritized), and achievement-orientated (push for excellence, high standards)

Six Types of Leadership Power

Legitimate power (officially recognized power), expert power, referent power (external reputation), information power, reward power, coercive power

Task Roles

Task leader, expediter (tracks progress, scheduling), information provider, information seeker, gatekeeper (regulates flow of communication), and recorder

Maintenance Roles

Social-emotional leader (maintains emotional well-being of group), supporter, harmonizer, tension releaser, interpreter (bridges gaps btwn people), gatekeeper, and compromiser/standard setter

Negative Roles

Central negative (member who actively challenges group), monopolizer (dominates conversation), self-confessor (excessive, inappropriate disclosure), insecure compliment seeker, joker, blocker (constantly opposes ideas), withdrawer (mentally checked out), aggressor, doormat.

Dewey’s Sequence Problem Solving

Define the problem, analyze the problem, establish solution criteria, generate possible solutions, evaluate and select the best solution.

People from individualistic cultures

Are more concerned with reputation and individual goals during communication and conflict management

People from collective cultures

Primarily concerned with group cohesion, harmony, and maintaining relationships

People from high power distance cultures

Primarily concerned with maintaining respect for hierarchy, social status, and formal authority

People from high context cultures

Primarily concerned with maintaining personal relationships, group harmony, indirect communication, and reading non-verbal cues

Small Groups

Interactions among three or more people connected by a common purpose, mutual influence, and a shared identity

Primary Groups

Long-lasting, relational-oriented small groups formed around close interpersonal bonds

Secondary Groups

Characterized by less frequent face-to-face interaction, less emotional and relational depth

Task Cohesion

The degree of commitment, dedication, and shared focus that members have toward completing the group's specific goal or purpose

Social Cohesion

Interpersonal liking, attraction, and emotional bonding among group members

Group Socialization

The ongoing process of teaching and learning the norms, rules, and expectations that govern group interaction and member behavior

Groupthink

A negative group phenomenon characterized by a lack of critical evaluation of proposed ideas or courses of action resulting from high levels of cohesion and/or excessive conformity pressures

Procedural Conflict

Emerges when group members disagree about the mechanics of how a task should be accomplished rather than the actual goal or content

Substantive Conflict

Focuses on group members' differing beliefs, attitudes, values, or ideas related to the core purpose or task of the group

Interpersonal Conflicts

Interactions that occur when there are real or perceived incompatible goals, scarce resources, or opposing viewpoints

Primary Tension

The initial, underlying awkwardness and social anxiety people experience when a small group first comes together

Secondary Tension

The intragroup conflict that emerges after a group passes the initial forming stage of development