PSY 113 Exam 2

Algorithm

-Step by step approach that leads to the solution

Heuristic

-Availability representative recognition and affect

Cognition

-What it means to think and how we solve problems

Prototype

-Depend on similarity which can result in similar items

-Ex: a robotic dog being included in our "dog" category

Confirmation Bias

-Tendency to search for or interpret information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions, leading to statistical errors

Overconfidence

-A well established bias in which a person's subjective confidence in his or her judgemen​ts is reliably greater than the accuracy of those judgements, especially when confidence is relatively high

Mental State

-Barrier to problem solving

-Incubate

Availability Heuristic

-Mental shortcut that relies on immediate examples that comes to a given person's mind when evaluating a specific topic, concept, method or decision

Framing

-An example of cognitive bias in which people react to a particular choice in different ways depending on how it is presented

Fixation

-Originated by Sigmund Freud

-Object relationships with and attachments to people or things in general, presisting from childhood into adult life

Belief Perseverance

-Tendency for people to hold their beliefs as true, even when there is ample evidence to discredit the belief

Divergent Thinking

-Combining elements in new and useful ways

Convergent Thinking

-The ability to the correct answer to standard questions that do not require significant creativity

Receptive Language

-The ability to understand information

Critical Period

-A period during someone's development in which a particular skill or characteristic is believed to be most readily acquired

Wharf's Linguistic Determinism Hypothesis

-The vocabulary a person uses

-Effects how she or he thinks about a topic

Savant Syndrome

-The condition in which someone with significant mental disabilities demonstrates certain abilities far and excess average

Social Intelligence

-The ability to get along well with others and get them to cooperate with you

Emotional Intelligence

-The ability to monitor one's own and other people's emotions to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately and to use emotional information to guide thinking and behavior

Intelligence Test

-Widely used to measure intellectual abilities

-When properly administered, such tests provide an operational definition of intelligence

Validity

-Makes a good intelligence test

-Tests ability to measure what is supposed to be measured

Standardization

-Consistency and objectivity of how a test is administered and scored

Reliability

-Makes a good intelligence test

-Consistency of a research study or measuring test

Fluid Intelligence

-The general ability to think abstractly, reason, identify patterns, solve problems, and discern relationships

Factor Analysis

-A statistical method used to describe variability among the observed correlated variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors

Longitudinal Study

-An observational research method in which data is gathered from the same subject repeatedly over a period of time

Crystallized Intelligence

-Defined as the ability to use learned knowledge and experience

70

Intellectual disability IQ below ____.

Test Bias

-When the scores of one group are significantly different and have higher predictive validity

Growth Mindset

-Abilities can be developed

Nature Versus Nurture

-Involves whether human behavior is determined by the environment either prenatal or during a person's life or by a person's genes

Extraversion

-High on sociability, talkativeness, energy, and assertiveness

Intraversion

-Tends to be inward turning, or focused more on internal thoughts, feelings, and moods rather than seeking out external stimulation

Teratogen

-Anything that can disrupt the development of an embryo or fetus in a pregnant mother's womb

Reflex

-Action is an automatic (is involuntary) neuromuscular action elisiated by a defined stimulus

-Babinski reflex

-Blink

-Moro

-Palmar

-Rooting

-Stepping and sucking

What reflexes are babies born with?

-Famously known for the cognitive development that looked how children developed intellectually throughout the course of childhood

-Cognitive development school of thought

Who is Jean Piaget? What school of thought is he considered to be in?

Object Permanence

-The awareness that things exist even when they are not perceived

-Ex: hiding something from a baby, they actually go look for it

Autism Spectrum Disorder

-Deficiencies in communication, and social interaction, by repetition and fixed behaviors increasing and commonly appear in childhood

Infantile Amnesia

-Childhood amnesia

-Inability for adults to remember events that happened when they were young children

Theory of Mind

-People's idea of their own and other's mental states

Conservation

-When the child understands that changing a form of a substance or object does not change its amount, overall volume, or mass

Accommodation

-To adapt your schemas to fit something into it

Assimilation

-Cognitive process that manages how we take in new information and incorporate that new information into our existing knowledge

Secure Attachment

-Classified by children who show some distress when their caregiver leaves but are able to compose themselves knowing that they will return

Reactive Attachment

-Serious condition in which an infant or a young child doesn't establish healthy attachments with parents or caregivers

Temperament

-Broadly refers to the aspect of personality which are biologically based rather than learned

Authoritarian

-Parents who impose rules and expect obediency

Permissive

-Parents who have few demands with little punishment and are too lenient

Authoritative

-Parents are demanding and responsive

Frontal Cortex

What is the part of the teen brain region that develops last?

Moral Reasoning

Lawrence Kohlberg is noted for pioneering this area of cognitive development.

Exercise

Older adults can reduce cognitive decline by...

Telomeres

-Tips of the chromosomes that wear down with age

-Marry after 20

-Well educated

Best predictor of marital satisfaction is...

Empty

Parents report feeling ____ when children go off and leave home.

Learning

-The acquisition of knowledge or skills through experience, study, or by being taught

Spontaneous Recovery

-The reappearance of a conditioned response that has been extinguished

Associative Learning

-Classical conditioning

-Operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning

-Behaviors are voluntary and exhibited by the learner

Cognitive Learning

-Learning that is concerned with acquisition of problem-solving abilities and with intelligence and conscious thought

Observational Learning

-Occurs when an observer's behavior changes after viewing the behavior of the model

Ivan Pavlov

-Best known for his work describing the physiological phenomenon of classical conditioning

-From his work studying digestion and dogs, he came to the conclusion that they would salivate at the sight of food

J. B. Watson

-Established the physiological school of behaviorism

Behaviorism

-A school of psychology that confines itself to the study of observable and quantifiable aspects of behavior

-Excludes emotions and motives

Stimulus Discrimination

-The ability to differentiate between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that have not been paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Primary Stimulus

-Dogs are conditioned to salivate when the bell rings... the food is considered the what

Conditioned Response

-An automatic response established by training to an ordinarily neutral stimulus

Unconditioned Response

-Unlearned

-Produces an unconditioned response

-There is a stimulus in the environment that produces a natural behavior (unlearned)

Unconditioned Stimulus

-Unconditionally, naturally, and automatically triggers a response

Neutral Stimulus

-A stimulus with no associated responses introduced during conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus

Previously a neutral stimulus that, after becoming associated with an unconditioned stimulus, eventually comes to trigger a conditioned response

Generalization

-Action of generalizing

-A general statement or concept obtained by interference from specific cases

Operant Behaviors

-Refers to behavior that operates on the environment or is controllable by the individual

Shaping

-A method of training by which successive approximations towards a target behavior are reinforced

-B.F. Skinner

Fixed Ratio

-After a set amount of responses

Variable Ratio

-After varying amount of responses

Fixed Interval

-After a set amount of time

Variable Interval

-After a varying amount of time

Cognitive Map

-Mental representations of physical locations

Extrinsic Motivation

-Refers to behavior that is driven by external rewards such as money, fame, grades, and praise

-This type of motivation arises from outside the individual

Intrinsic Motivation

-Refers to behavior that is driven by internal rewards

-Motivation to engage in a behavior arises from within the individual because it is naturally satisfying you

Latent Learning

-A form of learning that is not immediately expressed in an overt response; it occurs without any obvious reinforcement of the behavior or associations that are learned

Modeling/Pro-Social Behavior

-Helping, sharing, donating, co-operating, and volunteering

-Helps society or people as a whole

Albert Bandura

-Bobo doll experiment

-Way children learn aggression

-Learning occurs through observations and interactions with other people

-Can learn through not only being punished and rewarded themselves but also by watching others be rewarded and punished

Mirror Neuron

-A group of specialized neurons that mirrors the actions and behaviors of others

Recognition

-A cognitive process that matches information from a stimulus with information retrieved from that memory

Recall

-Mental process of retrieval of information from the past

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Information Processing Models

Storage

-Retention of information over time and memory

Encoding

-Converting into a form usable in memory

Retrieval

-Recovery of stored information when it is needed

Long-term Memory

-Location of permanent memories

-Automatic processing

-Schemas

Automatic Processing

-Entrance if info into long-term without conscious processing

Schemas

-Piles of info that represent something... try to add information to them

Cerebellum: implicit memory

Hippocampus: explicit memory

Basal ganglia: procedural memory

Long-term memory and the brain: cerebellum, hippocampus, and basal ganglia

Implicit Memory

-One of the main types of long-term memory

-Acquired and used unconsciously

-Can affect our thoughts and behaviors without knowing it

Chunking

-Individual pieces of information are bound together into a meaningful whole

Mnemonic

-Tool to help remember facts or large amounts of information

-Can be a song, rhyme, or pattern of letters

Testing Effect

-Finding that long-term memory is increased when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving to be remembered information through testing with proper feedback

-Testing someone's memory will help improve memory