Poli notes~

Law

The system of rules and regulations that govern a society, established by government institutions.

Constitution

The fundamental and supreme law that establishes the basis of a political system and political community, including the principles governing relations between a state and its population.

Legal positivism

The belief that law is man-made and operates based on statutes, regulations, and juridical interpretation, rather than aligning with moral principles or a higher moral order.

Separation of powers

The division of powers in a government system between branches and levels of government to prevent the concentration of power.

Constitutional court

A special court at the top of a country's judicial system that safeguards the constitution and determines the constitutionality of laws passed by the government.

Judicial review

The power of constitutional courts to interpret and invalidate laws based on their constitutionality.

Parliamentary supremacy

A system in which the constitutionality of laws passed by legislatures is not subject to judicial review.

Written constitution

A constitution that is explicitly documented.

Unwritten constitution

A constitution based on historical conventions and common practices.

Federalism

A form of government where power is constitutionally divided between the state and territorial units, granting a degree of autonomy to the territorial units.

Unitarism

A form of government where power is centralized around the state.

Legislative process

The process of making, amending, and enacting laws within a political system, involving stages such as drafting, committee review, debates, and voting.

Legislature

The central institution/authority of government that creates and changes laws, responsible for representing the interests of the public and making decisions on proposed legislation.

Bicameral legislature

A legislature with two chambers, a lower chamber often represented by national vote and an upper chamber representing geographic constituencies.

Unicameral legislature

A legislature with one chamber.

Forum for debating social, economic, and political issues

The function of legislatures as a platform for shaping public policy through debates and the development of new laws.

Provide accountability to the public

The function of legislatures in holding the executive branch accountable through questioning government actions, investigations, and demands for transparency.

Balance the authority of the executive

The function of legislatures as a check on the authority of the executive branch, with the power to approve or reject executive decisions and appointments.

Control government budgets

The function of many legislatures in reviewing, amending, and approving budgetary allocations to ensure wise spending of public funds.

Communication with the public

The function of legislatures as a bridge between the government and the public, conveying constituents' concerns and interests to the government and informing the public about government actions.

Active legislatures

Legislatures that have the power to say "no" to the executive and act as a check on the government. Examples include the US Congress.

Reactive legislature

Legislatures that have less power to withstand the government but can set parameters and impose sanctions on the government. Examples include the House of Commons in Canada and the UK.

Vulnerable legislature

Legislatures that are more pliant due to local political cultures that tolerate legislators pursuing their own interests. Examples include the Philippines and Italy.

Marginal legislature

Legislatures that perform important functions but have tentative support from social elites and can be disregarded by the executive. Examples include Pakistan, Peru, Nigeria, and Russia under Putin.

Minimal legislature

Legislatures that meet rarely and serve to symbolize national unity but do not effectively check the government. Examples include communist states and the National People's Congress in China.

Representation quotas in legislatures

Reserved seats or candidate positions for minority groups or women.

Gender quotas

Quotas that aim to increase the representation of women in legislatures.

Ethnic/minority-based quotas

Quotas that aim to increase the representation of ethnic or minority groups in legislatures.

Election

A formal method where individuals express their representatives or decisions, allowing citizens to choose their leaders and influence government policies.

Referendum

A specific type of election where the public directly votes on a particular political issue or policy proposal.

Suffrage

The right to vote.

Arrow's impossibility theorem

A mathematical theorem that shows the impossibility of determining the "optimal" ranking of preferences when none of the options receives an absolute majority of votes.

Electoral college

The system used in the United States for presidential elections, where each state is allocated a certain number of electoral votes and the candidate who wins the majority of electoral votes becomes president.

Electoral systems

The way in which elections are organized.

Electoral reform

Changes to an electoral system.

Constituency-based plurality systems

Electoral systems where a simple majority of votes determines the winner.

Duverger's law

The idea that first-past-the-post electoral systems lead to two-party systems.

Proportional representation

Electoral systems where votes are allocated to parties according to the percentage of the vote they received.

Mixed/hybrid systems

Electoral systems that combine elements of both constituency-based plurality systems and proportional representation.

Political party

A group of political activists who aspire to form or be part of the government based on a program of policies.

Civil society

Voluntary associations independent of the state and the market that actively seek to maintain or change the social, economic, and/or political status quo.

Voluntary community-based associations

Less formal, localized, and grassroots organizations within civil society.

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs)

Formal organizations geared toward social, political, and/or economic interests within civil society.

Labour unions

Formal organizations of workers aimed at improving working conditions within civil society.

Contentious politics

Politics that occur largely outside of formal political institutions and primarily within civil society.

Social movements

Ongoing, organized collective action toward reformist social change within contentious politics.

Independence movements

Movements conducted by subjugated or colonized populations toward political independence within contentious politics.

Revolutions

Movements aiming for structural changes within contentious politics.

Insurgencies

Armed rebellion without widespread legitimacy within contentious politics.

Interest groups

Formal associations aimed at promoting a sectional interest in the political system.

Insider groups

Interest groups that have close access to policymakers.

Outsider groups

Interest groups that have limited access to policymakers.

Professional associations

Interest groups representing specific professions.

Trade unions

Interest groups representing workers in a particular workplace or industry.

Business groups

Interest groups representing businesses and corporations.

Agricultural organizations

Interest groups representing agricultural interests.

Single-interest groups

Interest groups focused on a specific issue or cause.

Ideological interest groups

Interest groups driven by a particular ideology.

Public interest groups

Organizations that advocate for specific issues or causes in the public interest.

Welfare associations

Organizations that provide support and assistance to individuals or groups in need.

Interest Group

A group of individuals or organizations that share common interests and work together to influence government decisions.

Systems

Different approaches or models of interest group representation in politics.

Pluralism

A system where interest groups openly compete to influence government outcomes, based on the idea of a "marketplace of ideas."

Corporatism

A system where the state formalizes representation of "insider" groups, such as peak associations.

Challenges of Civil Society

Issues faced by civil society organizations, including equal representation, lack of accountability, lack of coordination, and reliance on specific funding sources.

The Media

Means of mass communication, including print media, broadcast media, and digital media.

Watchdog role

The traditional role of the media in monitoring and holding those in power accountable.

Bias

Media sources having a tendency to favor or promote particular political views.

The New (Social) Media

Emerging forms of media that are changing the nature of politics, such as the internet and social media.

Democratization of the media

The idea that the internet has made media more accessible and participatory.

Political Culture

The ideas, beliefs, values, and behavioral characteristics people have around the political system.

Change agents of culture

Factors that influence and shape political culture, including family, school, religion, media, leadership, and law.

Ideational structure

Culture as a system of ideas and beliefs.

Context

The specific circumstances and environment in which culture operates.

Filter

Culture as a lens through which politics is understood and experienced.

Cultural variation

Differences in political culture across countries or regions.

Actors

Individuals or groups, such as politicians, who act based on cultural beliefs.