PSYC 110- Chapter 6: Learning

What is learning?

A relatively long-term change in behavior that results from experience

How do we learn?

- by association

- by watching

- by thinking

Classical conditioning is also know as

Pavlovian conditioning

Classical conditioing

learning an association between 2 previously unrelated stimuli

What behavior does classical conditioning influence?

involuntary behavior

Operant conditioning is also known as

Instrumental/ Skinnerian Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

learning the association between our behaviors and their consequences

What behavior does operant conditioning influence?

voluntary conditioning

Observational behavior

learning by observing others' behaviors and their consequences

Cognitive learning

learning by mentally storing material to be used later

With who and when did classical conditioning begin?

1903 with Pavlov studying how dogs anticipate feeding episodes

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

a reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning

What happens after conditioning?

neutral stimulus becomes conditioned stimulus

Extinction

the weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response

How is extinction accomplished?

by repeatedly presenting the CS without the UCS;

ex. presenting the tone by itself in the Pavlovian Paradime

Spontaneous Recovery

the reappearance of a learned response after its extinction

If a rest period follows extinction training....

then the next presentation of the CS often elicits the CR

Classical conditioning

involuntarily doing something

Instrumental Conditioning

voluntarily choosing to do something and then being reinforced from it

Forward pairing

CS precedes the UCS

Simultaneous pairing

the CS and UCS occur together

Backward pairing

the CS follows the UCS

Easiest conditioning

forward pairing

Most difficult conditioning

backward pairing

General "Laws" of Learning

1. CS precedes the UCS

2. CS is temporarily contiguous (presented close in time) with the UCS

3. CS is paired with the UCS on multiple occasions

Why is the General "Laws" of learning in quotes?

because they aren't always true

Violations of the General "Laws" of Learning

1. Temporal contiguity alone DOES NOT always produce learning.

2. Temporal contiguity is NOT ALWAYS necessary for learning.

3. Multiple pairings are NOT ALWAYS necessary for learning.

Background Rate

degree to which the CS is presented in the absence of the UCS

What does background rate influence?

the ability of the CS to predict the UCS

What does not immediately follow an aversive food?

Nausea

What can occur in a single trial?

Taste aversion learning

Can anything be learned?

No

Biological preparedness

a built-in preparedness to learn particular associations

Contrapreparedness

a built-in disinclination to learn particular associations

Garcia and Koelling

Researchers in 1966 who studied taste aversion when looking at the effects of radiation on rats.

Food followed by Nausea (via drug, radiation)

taste aversion developed

Food followed by shock

no taste aversion developed

Bright lights and loud noises followed by nausea

no aversion to the bright lights and loud noises

What did Natural Selection design us to do?

to readily acquire certain associations (like food with nausea) more easily than other associations (like food with shock)

Operant Conditioning

process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences

Edward L. Thorndike

Said behavior is controlled by their consequences, therefore discovered the Law of Effect

Law of Effect

actions that lead to a "satisfying state of affairs"are more likely to be repeated, and those that are less satisfying are less likely to be repeated

B.F. Skinner

foremost proponent of behaviorism; worked with pigeons and rats in "skinner boxes"

Positive reinforcement

something pleasant is given and that makes the preceding behavior (the target response) MORE likely to occur

Example of positive reinforcement

make you bed, get ice cream

Negative reinforcement

the removal of something unpleasant that makes the preceding behavior MORE likely to occur (NOT punishment)

Example of negative reinforcement

make your bed, don't have to take the garbage out

Punishment

the presentation of an unpleasant event that makes the preceding behavior LESS likely to occur

Example of punishment

don't make you bed, get your phone taken away

What if the behavior you'd like to reinforce isn't being exhibited?

you can "shape" the organism

Shaping

gradually reinforce it for behavior that gets closer to the desired behavior

What is shaping used for?

to teach animals (including us) complex behaviors

What are the schedules of reinforcement?

Continuous Reinforcement.

Intermittent Reinforcement.

What does a schedule of reinforcement affect?

an animal's response frequency

Continuous Reinforcement

the animal is reinforced for each desired response

(learning is fast, but conditioned behavior extinguishes fast too)

Intermittent Reinforcement

reinforcement does not occur after every desired response; it only occurs sometimes

(initial learning is slower, but conditioned behavior is more resistant to extinction)

What is Intermittent Reinforcement also known as?

Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect (PREE)

4 types of intermittent reinforcement schedules

fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval, variable interval

What are interval schedules based on?

time

What are ratio schedules based on?

number of responses

Fixed Interval (FI) Schedule

reinforcement occurs after a set (fixed) amount of time has passed

variable interval (VI) schedule

reinforcement occurs after a variable amount of time has passed (around a predetermined average)

Fixed Ratio (FR) Schedule

reinforcement occurs after a set (fixed) number of responses are made

Variable Ratio (FR) Schedule

reinforcement occurs after a variable number of responses are made (around a predetermined average)

What schedules produce higher response rates?

ratio schedules, rather than interval schedules

Behaviorism I founder

John B. Watson

What does Behaviorism I believe about subject matter?

the subject matter of psychology should be observable behavior

What is the basic assumption of Behaviorism I?

the environment/ personal experiences have the biggest influence on behavior

What does Behaviorism I have a heavy emphasis on?

the nurture side of the nature-nurture debate

What did Watson believe in?

tabula rosa

Tabula rosa

blank slate

Behaviorism II founder

B.F. Skinner

What does Behaviorism II believe about subject matter?

subject matter of psychology should be observable behavior

What is the basic assumption of Behaviorism II?

behavioral responses are learned and are governed by the environment

What does Behaviorism II have a heavy emphasis on?

nurture

Observational learning

when an organism's behavior is influenced by the observation of others behavior and the consequences of their behavior

Who studied observational learning?

Albert Bandura

What did Bandura, Ross, and Ross study?

nursery school children watch how adults behave aggressively and either get rewarded or punished and then the kids are observed based on what they saw

What did the study of Bandura, Ross, and Ross indicate?

the group who saw the adults get rewarded for their behavior acted more aggressively than the group that saw the adults get punished