Lifespan Development, Personality, and Social Psychology

Physical development

Growth and changes in bodily functions, senses, motor skills, and health.

Cognitive development

Changes in learning, memory, attention, reasoning, and other mental processes.

Psychosocial development

Changes in emotions, personality, and social relationships.

Normative development

Examines what is considered normal development and the typical patterns of growth people experience throughout life.

Continuous development

Views development as a gradual, cumulative process in which growth builds on existing skills.

Discontinuous development

Views development as occurring in distinct stages, usually at specific times.

Stage theories

Theories proposing that development follows a universal sequence of stages, although the timing or expression may differ across cultures.

Nature versus nurture debate

The debate over whether development is influenced more by biology and genetics (nature) or environment and experiences (nurture).

Freud’s Psychosexual theory

Freud's theory proposing five stages of development in which pleasure-seeking urges focus on different areas of the body. Childhood experiences shape adult personality, and unresolved conflicts can cause fixation.

Fixation

Becoming stuck in a particular stage of development because of an unresolved conflict.

Oral stage (birth-1 year)

Pleasure is focused on the mouth through eating and sucking. Weaning can create conflict if not handled properly.

Oral fixation

Unresolved oral-stage conflict that may lead to behaviors such as smoking, drinking, overeating, or nail-biting.

Anal stage (1-3 years)

Children experience pleasure through bowel and bladder movements. Conflict centers on toilet training and self-control.

Anal-retentive personality

A personality associated with excessive control, stubbornness, and compulsive behavior.

Anal-expulsive personality

A personality associated with messiness, carelessness, and being prone to outbursts.

Phallic stage (3-6 years)

Pleasure is focused on the genitals. Children experience conflict involving attraction toward the opposite-sex parent and jealousy toward the same-sex parent.

Oedipus complex

Freud's theory that boys desire their mother and view their father as a rival.

Castration anxiety

In Freud's theory, a boy's unconscious fear of punishment or castration by his father.

Electra complex

Freud's originally proposed concept that girls desire their father and want to take their mother's place.

Latency period (6 years-puberty)

Sexual feelings become dormant as children focus on school, friendships, and other pursuits.

Genital stage (puberty onward)

Sexual feelings reawaken and become directed toward more socially acceptable partners. Successful resolution of earlier conflicts allows for healthier adult relationships.

Psychosocial theory

Erikson's theory proposing that personality develops throughout life through social relationships and interactions.

Ego identity

A person's sense of self and how they understand and interact with others.

Psychosocial crisis

A conflict or challenge that must be resolved at each stage of development.

Stage 1 (trust vs. mistrust-infancy)

First stage of psychosocial theory, infants develop trust when caregivers are responsive and consistent. Unresponsive caregiving can create fear and anxiety.

Stage 5 (Identity vs. role confusion-adolescence)

5th stage of psychosocial theory, main task is developing a strong sense of self. Adolescents explore different values and beliefs.

Stage 7 (Generativity vs. stagnation- middle adulthood)

7th stage of psychosocial theory, generativity involves finding purpose and contributing to the development of others. Stagnation involves little connection with others or interest in productivity and self-improvement.

Generativity

Contributing to future generations through activities such as raising children, volunteering, and mentoring.

Stagnation

Feeling disconnected from others and lacking interest in productivity or personal growth.

Cognitive theory of development

Piaget's theory proposing that children develop cognitive abilities through a series of specific stages.

Schema (schemata)

Mental frameworks or models that help people organize and categorize information about the world.

Assimilation

Taking in new information and fitting it into an existing schema.

Accommodation

Changing an existing schema to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor stage (birth-2 years)

Children learn about the world through their senses and motor behavior. They develop object permanence and stranger anxiety.

Object permanence

Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Stranger anxiety

Fear or distress that infants may experience around unfamiliar people.

Preoperational stage (2-7 years)

Children use words and images to represent objects but struggle with adult logic and mental operations along with egocentricism

Egocentrism

Difficulty understanding another person's perspective.

Concrete operational stage (7-11 years)

Children develop logical thinking about concrete events, understand reversibility, and become better at understanding other people's perspectives.

Formal operational stage (11 years-adulthood)

Individuals develop the ability to think logically about abstract ideas and hypothetical situations.

Prenatal development

Development that occurs from conception until birth.

Germinal stage (weeks 1-2)

Begins at conception when sperm fertilizes the egg, forming a zygote which undergoes mitosis. This stage ends when it attaches to the lining of the uterus.

Zygote

The fertilized egg that begins dividing and developing.

Embryonic stage (weeks 3-8)

The fertilized egg implants in the uterine lining and becomes an embryo. Blood vessels form, the placenta develops, and the basic structures of the body begin forming.

Embryo

The developing human during the embryonic stage.

Fetal stage (weeks 9-40)

The embryo becomes a fetus. Major organs and body systems continue developing, and the fetus grows in size.

Fetus

The developing human from approximately week 9 until birth.

Point of viability

Around 23-24 weeks, a premature fetus may be capable of surviving outside the womb with medical support.

Teratogens

Environmental agents that cause damage to a developing fetus.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)

Conditions caused by prenatal alcohol exposure that can result in intellectual disabilities and physical birth defects.

Critical period

A specific time during development when an organ or body system is developing and exposure to teratogens can have significant effects.

Prenatal influences

Genetic and environmental factors that affect development before birth.

Attachment

A long-standing emotional bond between an infant and caregiver.

Secure base

A caregiver's presence that gives a child a sense of safety and allows them to explore their environment.

Secure base requirements

Caregivers must respond to children's needs and engage in mutually enjoyable interactions.

Secure attachment

The healthiest attachment style. Children use their parent as a secure base, seek comfort during stress, and trust that their caregiver will respond to their needs.

Avoidant attachment

Children are unresponsive to their parent and may avoid seeking comfort or treat the parent like a stranger.

Resistant attachment

Children demonstrate clingy behavior but resist interactions with their caregiver. They may be fearful of exploring their environment.

Disorganized attachment

Children demonstrate odd or inconsistent behaviors and often have difficulty regulating their emotions, often due to abuse

Strange Situation

A research procedure used to observe infant attachment by examining how children respond to separation from and reunion with their caregiver.

Kinsey's research

Research published in two books that examined sexual behavior using personal interviews and surveys, riddled with sampling error and distortion due to self reported answers

Kinsey Scale

A continuum used to categorize sexual orientation rather than placing everyone into strictly heterosexual or homosexual categories.

Masters and Johnson research

Research examining the physiological responses of the human body during sexual activity, done by observing people doing sexual acts

Sexual response cycle

A four-stage model describing the body's physiological responses during sexual activity (excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution)

Excitement phase

The arousal phase, marked by increased blood flow and physiological changes such as erection and lubrication.

Plateau phase

Sexual arousal increases and physical responses intensify, including increased swelling and muscle tension.

Orgasm phase

The peak of sexual arousal, involving rhythmic muscular contractions and the release of sexual tension.

Resolution phase

The body returns to its unaroused state, accompanied by decreased blood pressure and muscle relaxation.

Sexual orientation

A person's emotional, romantic, or sexual attraction toward other people.

Intersex

A term describing people born with variations in sex characteristics that do not fit typical definitions of male or female bodies (1-2% of people)

Bisexual

Attraction to people of the same and other genders.

Pansexual

Attraction to people regardless of gender.

Asexual

Experiencing little or no sexual attraction to others.

Queer

An umbrella term used to describe sexual orientations and gender identities.

Aromantic

Experiencing little or no romantic attraction toward others.

Gender identity

A person's internal sense of being male, female, both, neither, or another gender. It does not always correspond to their sex assigned at birth.

Gender dysphoria

Significant distress associated with a mismatch between a person's experienced gender and their assigned sex, meeting specific diagnostic criteria (6 months and lasting distress)

Transition

The process through which transgender individuals move toward living in a way that aligns with their gender identity. This may involve social, legal, or medical changes.

Conversion therapy

Practices intended to change a person's sexual orientation or gender identity. These practices have been discredited by scientific evidence and can cause psychological harm.

Personality

Long-standing traits and patterns that make people consistently think, feel, and behave in certain ways.

Hippocrates

Proposed that personality was related to bodily fluids, or humors.

Gall

Believed that measuring the distance between bumps on the skull (phrenology) could reveal personality traits. This idea was later discredited.

Kant

Proposed four personality categories.

Wundt

Suggested describing personality using two major axes: emotional/nonemotional, and changeable/unchangeable.

Psychodynamic perspective

An approach that explains personality through the interaction of conscious and unconscious thoughts and experiences.

Unconscious

Mental activity that we are unaware of or unable to consciously access.

Conscious

Thoughts, feelings, and experiences that we are currently aware of.

Preconscious

Thoughts and memories that are not currently in conscious awareness but can be brought into awareness.

Freud’s Psychodynamic theory

The idea that personality develops through conflicts between biological drives and our internal social control over these drives

Freudian slip

An unintentional mistake in speech or action that Freud believed could reveal unconscious desires or thoughts.

Id

The unconscious part of personality containing primitive desires and urges, including hunger, thirst, and sexual impulses.

Pleasure principle

The id's motivation to seek immediate gratification and avoid discomfort.

Ego

The rational part of personality that balances the id's desires with reality and the demands of the superego.

Reality principle

The ego's ability to satisfy desires realistically without causing negative consequences.

Superego

The part of personality that represents morality and social expectations, developed through childhood social interactions.

Moral principle

The superego's motivation to strive for perfection and distinguish right from wrong.

Defense mechanisms

Unconscious protective behaviors used to reduce anxiety caused by conflict between the id and superego.

Projection

Attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or desires to someone else.

Repression

Unconsciously suppressing painful memories or thoughts.

Neurosis

A tendency to experience negative emotions, such as anxiety and worry.