Learning Theories #2

law of effect

behavior followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be stamped in; behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stamped out

operant conditioning

refers to behavior affected by its consequences

reflexive behavior

involuntary behavior controlled by preceding stimuli, can be classically conditioned

operant behavior

voluntary behavior controlled by following stimuli, can be operantly conditioned

reinforcers

an item/event that follows behavior and leads to an increase in the rate/probability of that behavior; can also maintain rates of behavior

punishers

an item/event that follows a behavior and leads to a decrease in the rate/probability of that behavior

reinforcement

the procedure of delivering a stimulus/event contingent upon the occurrence of behavior and seeing an increase in the rate of that behavior

deprivation

stimuli are more likely to function as reinforcers when the organism is deprived of them

immediacy

stimuli are more likely to function as reinforcers when they are delivered immediately

size

larger amounts of a stimulus are more likely to function as a reinforcer than smaller amounts

contingency

stimuli that are delivered contingently are more likely to function as a reinforcer than stimuli delivered non contingently

primary reinforcer

a stimulus/ event that is innately reinforcing; no learning is necessary for these items to function as reinforcers

conditioned/secondary reinforcer

a stimulus/event that is reinforcing because it has been associated with a single backup reinforcer; learning is required for these items to function as reinforcers

generalized reinforcer

a type of conditioned reinforcer that is associated with multiple backup reinforcers (ex. money, attention, name brands)

natural reinforcers

a reinforcer that typically follows or is provided for a behavior (ex. social interaction, brushing teeth, cooperating)

contrived reinforcers

a reinforcer that has deliberately arranged to modify a behavior

discriminative stimulus

a stimulus in the presence of which responses are reinforced and in the absence of which responses are not reinforced

shaping

gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successive approximation; often use to teach nonhumans and nonverbal humans new behaviors

schedule

a requirement that must be met to obtain reinforcement

dense schedule

schedules which produce a lot of reinforcement

lean schedule

schedules which produce little reinforcement

continuous reinforcement schedule

a schedule that requires a consequence to be administered following every instance of a behavior

intermittent reinforcement schedule

a schedule in which consequences are delivered after a specified or average time has elapsed or after a specified or average number of behaviors has occurred

fixed-ratio schedule

reinforcement is contingent upon a fixed/predictable number of responses

ratio strain

breakdown in responding when the ratio requirement is increased too quickly

variable ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable interval schedule

reinforcement contingent upon the first response after a varying, unpredictable period of time.

ratio schedule

reinforcement based on number of responses.

fixed schedule

reinforcement is provided after a specific number of occurrences or after a specific amount of time

variable schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is provided at different rates or at different times

interval schedule

a schedule in which reinforcement is provided after a specific unit of time

fixed duration

behavior must be performed continuously for a fixed, predictable period of time

variable duration

behavior must be performed continuously for a varying, unpredictable period of time

fixed time schedule

reinforcer is delivered following fixed, predictable period of time, regardless of behavior.

variable time schedule

reinforcer is delivered following varying, unpredictable period of time, regardless of behavior.

differential reinforcement of high rates (DRH)

reinforcement is contingent upon emitting at least a certain number of responses in a certain period of time; used to increase the rate of responding.

differential reinforcement of low rates (DRL)

minimum amount of time must pass between each response before the reinforcer is delivered; used to decrease the rate of responding.

differential reinforcement of paced responding (DRP)

reinforcement is contingent upon emitting a series of responses at a set rate (neither fast nor slow); has to be in a specific set of time

conjunctive schedule

two or more simple schedules operating simultaneously

adjusting schedule

response requirement changes as a function of performance while responding for previous reinforcer.

chained schedule

a schedule consisting of a sequence of two or more simple schedules, each with its own SD and the last of which results in a terminal reinforcer.

goal gradient effect

the difference in response strength between early and later links; increase in strength and/or efficiency of responding as one draws near goal

forward chaining

a method for teaching behavior chains that begins with the learner being prompted and taught to perform the fist behaivor in the task analysis; the trainer completed the remaining steps in the chian.

backward chaining

The establishment of the final link in a behavioral chain, with the addition of preceding links, until the first link is acquired.

Premack Principle

A principle that states that making the opportunity to engage in a high-probability behavior contingent on the occurrence of a low-frequency behavior will function as reinforcement for the low-frequency behavior.

drive-reduction theory

the idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need

response deprivation theory

behavior becomes reinforcing when the individual is prevented from engaging in the behavior at its normal frequency

extinction burst

temporary increase in frequency and intensity of responding when extinction first implemented

resurgence

the reappearance during extinction of other behaviors that had once been effective in obtaining reinforcement

partial reinforcement effect

Behavior maintained on intermittent/partial reinforcement schedule will extinguish more slowly than behavior maintained on continuous schedule

history of reinforcement

The more reinforcers received = greater resistance to extinction

magnitude of reinforcer

Larger reinforcers sometimes result in greater resistance to extinction than small reinforcers

degree of deprivation

The greater the level of deprivation, the greater the resistance to extinction

previous experience in extinction

the greater the number of exposures to extinction, the quicker the behavior will extinguish.

distinctive signal for extinction

extinction facilitated when there is a distinctive stimulus that signals the onset of extinction.

S-delta

A stimulus in the presence of which responses are not reinforced

discrimination training

the differential reinforcement of a behavior in the presence of one stimulus (SD) and not in the presence of another stimulus (SΔ)

stimulus control

the ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others

stimulus generalization

the tendency to respond to a stimulus that is only similar to the original conditioned stimulus with the conditioned response

behavioral bliss point theory

Organism with free access to alternative activities will distribute its behavior in such a way as to maximize overall reinforcement

resistance to extiction

the extent to which responding persists after the extinction procedure has been implemented

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance of an extinguishing response following a rest period after extinction

differential reinforcement

reinforcing only those responses within a response class that meet a specific criterion along some dimension(s) and placing all other responses in the class on extinction.

escape behavior

response terminates an aversive stimulus that is present in the organism's environment.

avoidance behavior

response prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring.

one factor theory

organisms are sensitive to the rate of aversive events that they encounter. Behaviors that reduce the rate of aversive events are more likely to occur

two factor theory

Avoidance is the result of classical and operant conditioning

functional analysis

is a procedure for determining what reinforcer maintains problem behavior.

timeout

removal of the organism from a reinforcing environment

primary punisher

An innately punishing event (ex. painful event, extreme temperatures)

secondary punisher

an event that has become punishing because of its association with another punisher (ex. speeding ticket)

generalized punisher

an event that has become punishing because of its association with many other punishers in the past.