Comparative Politics Key Terms for Midterm

Comparative Politics

• study and comparison of

  • domestic policies, political institutions, power struggles

• across different countries

• general patters and tests theories

• why political systems differ

• Ex: why SK developed a stable democracy when NK didn’t

  • domestic internal choices produce different outcomes

Comparative method

• analytical technique

• compare 2+ countries (cases)

• formulate hypothesis, isolate key variables, draw general conclusions

• primary tool to test cause and effect in real world

  • cant conduct lab experiment

• Ex: Tocqueville contrasts post revolution stability in France and US to determine that political decentralization is explanatory variable

Correlation V Causation

• Correlation is association between two variables

• Causation means a change in one variable changes the other

• Don’t confuse correlation with causation

  • leads to flawed policy or theories

  • confounding variables can be present

• Ex: Economic development correlates with democracy/stability but does not cause it unless social and political change present

The State

• Centralized political organization that maintains a monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force over a specific territory

  • Webber

• foundation of political authority

  • provides security

  • institutions needed to have policy

• Ex: Modern French state developed through gaining territorial control and bureaucratic expansion (over centuries)

Sovereignty

• Legal authority and ability of a state to govern independent of external and internal rivals

  • execute policies

• Modern: state has autonomy over domestic affairs

• Ex: UK has legal sovereignty over territory though some power seceded to scotland, wales and formally EU

State Building

• Deliberate support of effective institutions

• For public order, prevent collapse

• Fukuyama: balance of scope (function) and strength (capacity)

• Ex: South Korea built strong capacity after war, leading to economic development and infrastructure

Neo- patrimonialism

• Formal bureaucratic structures

• Informal personal patronage

  • distribute state resources to loyal elites

• Erodes state capacity b/c lose legal equality

  • leaders divert public funds/offices for own political gain

• Ex: Zaire (DNC) under Mobutu Sese Seko, state predatory because enriched elites at expense of people

  • revenue from state controlled mines

Bureaucratic Rational State

• explicit and equal rule of law

• meritocratic civil service

• Weber: most efficient and predictable political authority, long term economic growth

• Ex: Historic civil service exam in China (merit based bueracracy)

Weak state

• Struggles with basic government functions

  • enforcing law, collect taxes, manage economy, public infrastructure

• Weak state capacity

• Political instability from corruption and third party protection rackets

• Ex: Weakness of local judiciaries/law enforcement allow drug cartels to challenge state authority in Mexico

Failed State

• central political authority collapses

• lose monopoly of force

  • widespread violence (civil wars)

  • humanitarian crisis

  • regional fragmentation

• Still recognized internationally

• Ex: Somalia in the 90s, state failure led to fragmented authority

Phantom State

• internal domestic sovereignty

• lacks external recognition

• proves external recognition not needed for legitimacy

• Ex: Somaliland broke away from Somalia and operates with sovereignty but not recognized

Nation

• Human community bound by shared cultural historical or political ties that collectively desire self governance through a independent state

• Imagined community

  • creates solidarity

  • willing to sacrifice for group

• Ex: Poland maintained distinct culture and desire for self- determination even when split or consolidated

Nationalism

• ideology

• nation should be self governing

• political state should align with national group

• Wimmer: can be constructive or destructive

  • civic or ethnic

  • public goods and equality

  • inside/outside tension leads to violence

• Ex: Anti-colonial movements in Africa/Asia used this to unite diverse populations against imperial rule

Ethnic Nationalism

• national membership through shared customs, ethnic ancestry

• ethnicity is ascriptive

  • exclude minorities from membership

• Ex: Imperial Germany/ other European states’ identities relied on shared language and blood decent

Civic nationalism

• national membership through shared politics, values, laws, citizenship

• inclusive foundation

• political stability in multi-ethnic states (equality)

• Ex: Post- revolutionary France’s identity centered on principles of liberty, equality, citizenship

Slef-Determination

• political principle

• nation/ people have right to choose form of gov

• Why european empires dismantled

• Modern nation state relies on it

• Ex: Kosovo declared political independence from Serbia (2008) b/c majority Albanian population, invoking this principle

Secession

• Formal withdrawal of region from an existing state

• Establish new independent state

• Frequently leads to national conflict

• Ex: South Sudan voted to leave Sudan (2011) after decades of civil war

Irredentism

• Political campaign or foreign policy

• seek to annex territories

  • grounds of common ethnicity or historical possession

• Triggers interstate wars

• Ex: Russia’s annexation of Crimea (2014) or Ukraine (present) justified by claims of reuniting Russian speaking populations

Democracy and Democratization

• political system

• power is exercised directly or indirectly by the public

  • through periodic, competitive, and fair elections

• Individual freedom and equality

• Hold leaders accountable to people

• Ex: Ancient Athens through direct citizen assemblies. Spread globally in 19th and 20th centuries through representative systems

Liberal Democracy

• political system/ regime

• competitive elections

• extensive guarantees for individual civil liberties, checks and balances, rule of law

• majority rule can’t be used to oppress minorities or opposition

• Ex: UK, Germany, Japan protect free speech, independent courts, regular party change

Electoral Democracy

• political system

• regular multiparty elections

• lacks deep protections for civil liberties, judicial independence, rule of law

• “procedural/hybrid” democracy

  • executive overreach and weak rights

• Ex: Post Apartheid South Africa has free elections but single party dominance and inequality creates governing challenges

Democratization

• political transition

• autocratic regime to stable democratic system

• Historically in waves through globe

• Driven by economic modernization, civil society, international pressure, elite negotiations

• Ex: Poland transitioned to a democracy when trade union negotiated end of single party rule

Modernization Theory

• theoretical model

• economic development leads to social shifts

  • urbanization, education, large middle class

  • fosters democratic rule

• Inglehart & Welzel: industrial growth shifts values from survival to self expression

  • demand for democratic institutions

• Ex: South Korea’s post war industrialization expanded educated urban middle class who then demanded democracy

Authoritarianism

• Political regime

• small group exercises power over state without constitutional responsibility to public

• Limit political pluralism and participation

• Relies on co-optation, clientelism, propaganda, selective representation

• Ex: Mexico under PRI maintained rule through corporatist co-optation and controlled elections

Totalitarianism

• extreme political regime

• authoritarianism with ideological state

• total control over all aspects of public and private life

• no independent civil society

• terror and state violence

• all encompassing ideology

• Ex: Stalin in USSR controlled through mass purges, media censorship, mandatory ideological alignment

Resource Curse

• phenomenon

• countries rich in valuable natural resources more likely to be autocratic

  • weak governance

  • low economic diversity

• leaders/state funded by resources not taxes

  • no accountability to public

• Ex: Nigeria and Venezuela have oil wealth and rampant corruption (clientelism), undermine other economic sectors, and no democratic accountability

Competitive Authoritarianism

• hybrid regime

• formal democratic institutions exist

• incumbents abuse resources

  • media, courts (stacked or legal battles), gerrymandering

  • create doubt in democratic institutions

• Playing field tilted in their party’s favor

• Levitsky & Way: differ from dictatorships b/c opposition can contest power just unfair

• Ex: Hungary under Orban, regular elections but his party used above methods to disadvantage opposition

Collective Action

• coordinated activity

• achieve common political, economic, social goal

• Olson: suffers from free rider problem

  • rational actors decide to enjoy public goods without risking cost of participation

• Ex: Strikes require coordination (like union) to overcome risk of job loss

Social Movement

• organized network of people

• sustained collective action

• Lee: leverage political opportunities, organizations, and framing outside of legislative channels

• Ex: Anti-Apartheid movement in South Africa organized mass boycotts, strikes, international support over decades

Civil Society

• social organizations

• voluntary

• autonomous and independent of state control

• check on state power

• creates social trust and democratic participation

• Ex: Unions, student groups, etc. provided infrastructure for democratic transition of Tunisia during Arab Spring

Non-Violent Protests

• political action

• relies on unarmed tactics to achieve political objective

  • marches, strikes, boycotts, disobedience

• Chenoweth: 2x more successful than armed rebellion

  • attracts more participation

  • regime defections

• Ex: Solidarity movement in Poland organized strikes and civil resistance forcing democracy negotiations

Social Media

• communication platforms

• enable decentralized rapid diffusion of information

• Tucker: initially liberation tech for mobilization

  • autocrats learned how to manipulate by fear, friction, flooding

• Ex: Arab spring, in Egypt, activists used social media to organize but regime shut down internet and flooded with propaganda

Presidentialism

• democratic system

• head of government and state is combined

  • fixed terms

  • directly elected

  • independent of legislature

• executive stability

• democratic accountability

• risk gridlock between exec and legislature

• winner take all politics

• Ex: Brazil’s system of exec affairs head and fragmented multi-party congress

Parliamentarism

• democratic system

• prime minister is head of gov

  • directly elected legislature

    • they choose and hold PM accountable

• Reduces gridlock (more efficient)

  • if party fractures creates instability

  • vote of confidence can keep or change PM

• Ex: UK uses system where leader of majority party in House of Commons becomes PM

Semi- Presidentialism

• hybrid democratic system

• directly elected president

  • foreign power

• Legislative appointed Prime minister

  • domestic power

• flexible governance

• risks cohabitation- gridlock in executive branch

  • when two figures from different parties

• Ex: France has this system, when gridlocked contributes to protests

Single Member District (SMD) plurality

• electoral system

• candidate who receives the most votes wins the seat

  • plurality- don’t need majority, can be 2+ candidates

  • single member district

• Duverger’s Law- system naturally encourage 2 party system

  • stable

  • minor third parties almost never win

• Ex: UK uses system for house of commons, normally legislative majority for Labour or Conservative parties

Proportional Representation (PR)

• electoral system

• percentage of votes party receives in a district is proportional to the seats they win

  • multi member districts

• reflect minority votes

• encourage parties to work together

• closed list PR system give party rulers control over candidate selection (no primaries)

• Ex: Germany uses system so parties with 5+% of electoral vote have fair representation

Majority runoff

• electoral system

• candidate needs absolute majority

  • second round (runoff) between top choices

• McClintock: Increase legitimacy and moderation

• Ex: France famously uses this system, two candidates have to moderate in second round to win votes

Democratic Backsliding

• degradation of democratic institutions

  • checks and balances, electoral laws, courts, media

  • civil liberty decline

• state-led by popularly elected leaders

• gradual so harder to identify and resist

• replaced military coups

• Ex: Orban in Hungary

Third wave Autocratization

• Global trend

• 21st century

• decline in democratic quality

• rise in authoritarian rule

• incremental legal erosion from within democracies

  • not coups

• Ex: Eastern europe (Orban), latin america (Chavez- Ven.), and South Asia (Modi-India) all experienced exec overreach and weakened checks in last decades

Executive Takeover

• elected exec dismantles checks on power

  • uses legal/ constitutional methods

  • increased exec power

• Svolik: voters consent to democratic decline in return for partisan victories

  • polarization driven

• Ex: Chavez in Venezuela constitutionally rewrote rules to consolidate presidential power

Polarization

• division of society

  • ideological, social, political

• mutually antagonistic and stubborn

• High levels enable democratic erosion

  • partisans rather win than protect democracy

• Ex: Polarization in Turkey forced voters to choose between partisan religious identity and democratic checks, incumbent could expand executive authority

Political Economy

• interaction of state power and markets

• allocation of economic resources

• tradeoff between freedom and equality

• framework of state dictates how wealth is made and distributed

  • influences stability and capacity

• Ex: state led economic development in China and market led development in western europe

  • differing growth trajectories

Public Goods

• goods/services secured or provided by the state

• indivisible and equally available regardless of individuals contributions (non-excludable)

• Private markets under provide non-excludable goods

  • infrastructure, defense, public health

  • state provides instead

• Test for state capacity

• Ex: All of the above examples in western europe are state funded

Economic Libralism

• economic system

• individual economic freedom

  • protects private property

  • more important that state intervention

• free market allocates resources

• max market efficiency and individual choice

  • minimal state regulation and taxes

• higher income inequality

• Ex: Thatcherite market deregulation in UK privatized state enterprises and cut taxes

Communism

• economic system

• state eliminates private property

• no free market

• central state planning for all economic activity

• total economic equality

  • state in theory redistributes fairly

• historically turns into authoritarian control and inefficient

• Ex: USSR planned economy by setting prices, production quotas, resource allocation

Social Democracy

• economic system

• accepts private property

• market competition

• state intervention

  • progressive taxes

  • welfare programs

• limits on inequality

• strong state capacity to fund social programs

• Ex: Sweden has private and competitive corporations and alot of unions, high social spending

State Led Development

• economic strategy

• state investments in private sectors, subsidizes industries, manages international trade

  • rapid growth

• Karma: world bank acknowledged success in east asia

• Ex: South korea directed growth towards private manufacturing firms (like Samsung) to build export industries

State Capitalism

• economic system

• for profit businesses owned and controlled by state

  • authoritarian control

• Milanovic: “political capitalism” drives economic growth while maintaining political control

• Ex: In China massive state omened enterprises dominate major sectors (energy, banking, etc.) alongside private firms

Neo Libralism

• economic system

• promotes free market capitalism

  • deregulation, private state assets, low taxes, reduced gov spending

• Washinton consensus in 1980s

  • international financial institutions supported all should follow system

  • backlash b/c led to inequality

  • without established strength, reduction in scope led to weakened states

• Ex: Latin American states in 90s opened markets under consensus

Welfare State

• state funded public institutions and programs

  • creates social stability

• protect citizens from economic risks

  • ex: old age

  • socialize risk across all of society

• Expands purchasing power of lower/middle class

• Ex: Germany provides universal healthcare, unemployment insurance, pensions

Inequality

• unequal distribution of income, wealth, opportunity

• among people or groups

• Gini index

• high inequality erodes social trust

  • more polarization

  • risks democratic erosion

• Ex: South Africa

Colonialism

• formal practice

• imperial power establishes direct control over foreign territory

• imposed arbitrary boarders

• extractive economies

  • dependent on commodities

• weak state institutions left over

• Ex: British rule in nigeria created weak government and extractive economy based on oil

Dependent Development

• Economic condition

• developing nation depend on industrial nation

  • for investment, manufactured goods, technology

• Limits economic sovereignty

  • have to import manufactured products and export commodities at a loss

• Ex: Latin American economies (20th century) exported agricultural products to industrial nations

Import Substitution Industrialization (ISI)

• developmental strategy

• mercantilist (balance of trade)

• state uses tariffs and subsidies to block foreign imports

  • grow domestic manufacturing

• Built industrial capacity in Latin America

• created inefficient domestic industries unable to compete globally

• Ex: Mexico placed strict tariffs to build domestic private and state owned manufacturers

Inclusive institutions

• political and economic rules

• enforce private property rights, competition, and public investment

• unbiased legal contracts

• Acemoglu and Robinson: creative destruction (innovation)

  • long term economic growth

• Ex: Compare nogles US to Nogles Mexico, disparity across boarder bc of inclusive v extractive institutions

Political Globalization

• Expansion of politics

  • international institutions, supranational orgs

• reduce sovereignty

• global rights standards

• prevent war

• democratic deficit

• Ex: EU

Economic Globalization

• expansion of economic institutions

  • international trade, currency, foreign direct investment, global supply chains

• Milanovic: income growth for asian middle class and global 1%, stagnation for western working class

• Ex: World bank, ITC

Societal Globalization

• Expansion of people and ideas

  • migration, culture, media, values

  • global civil society

• nationalist backlash

• cultural homogenization

• Ex: Diaspora communities maintain ties with origin nations because of globalization