Ap gov unit 3

Political Participation

The ways in which citizens engage in political processes, including voting, activism, and civic engagement.

Linkage institutions

The structures that connect citizens to the government, including political parties, elections, interest groups, and the media.

Suffrage

The right to vote in political elections, often expanded through amendments in constitutions and legislation.

Political efficacy

The belief that one's participation in politics can make a difference, influencing outcomes and policy decisions.

Internal efficacy: Believing you understand politics.

External efficacy: Believing government listens to citizens.

Rational-choice voting

A voting theory that suggests individuals choose candidates based on their own self-interest and the expected outcomes of their votes, aiming to maximize personal benefits.

Retrospective voting

Voting based on a candidate/party’s past performance.

Prospective Voting

Voting based on what a candidate promises to accomplish in the future.

Party-Line Voting

Voting for candidates from the same political party across multiple elections or positions.

Voter Turnout

The percentage of eligible voters who actually vote in an election.

Voter Apathy

A lack of interest or concern about politics and elections.

Costs of Voting

Obstacles that make voting difficult, including registration requirements, transportation, time, and waiting in lines.

Voting Blocs

Groups of voters who tend to vote similarly because they share characteristics or interests.

Structural Barriers to Voting

Laws or policies that make voting more difficult for certain groups. (Grandfather Clause, Literacy Tests, Poll Tax, White Primary, Voter ID Laws.)

Grandfather Clause

A historical law allowing people to vote if their ancestors had voting rights, effectively preventing many Black Americans from voting.

Literacy Test

A test historically used to prevent Black Americans and other minorities from voting.

Poll Tax

A fee people had to pay to vote, which disproportionately prevented poor citizens from voting.

White Primary

A primary election that only allowed white voters to participate, excluding Black Americans.

Voter ID Laws

Laws requiring voters to present identification before voting. Supporters argue they prevent fraud, while opponents argue they can make voting harder for certain groups.

15th Amendment (1870)

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

17th Amendment (1913)

Established the direct election of U.S. senators by voters rather than state legislatures.

19th Amendment (1920)

Prohibits denying the right to vote based on sex, granting women the constitutional right to vote.

22nd Amendment (1951)

Limits presidents to two elected terms.

23rd Amendment (1961)

Gives Washington, D.C., electoral votes in presidential elections.

24th Amendment (1964)

Prohibits poll taxes in federal elections.

26th Amendment (1971)

Lowers the voting age to 18.

Voter Registration Policies

State requirements that citizens must meet to register before voting. These policies vary by state.

Same-Day Voting Registration

Allows eligible citizens to register and vote on the same day.

Absentee Ballots/Mail-In Ballots

Allow eligible voters to submit their votes without physically going to a polling location.

Electoral College Votes

A candidate generally needs 270 of 538 electoral votes to win.

Presidential election processes

Presidential elections involve primaries, caucuses, national conventions, the general election, and the Electoral College.

Campaign organizations and strategies

Campaigns use fundraising, advertising, polling, debates, and voter outreach to attract voters.

Elections

Processes through which citizens vote for candidates or decide political issues.

Purpose of Elections

Allow citizens to choose representatives, influence government policies, hold officials accountable, and participate in democracy.

Steps in the Presidential Election

1. Candidates announce their campaigns.

2. Candidates compete in primaries and caucuses.

3. Parties select nominees at national conventions.

4. Candidates campaign in the general election.

5. Citizens vote in November.

6. Electors cast Electoral College votes.

7. Congress counts the electoral votes and the winner becomes president.

Primary elections

Voters choose which candidate will represent a political party.

General elections

Voters choose between the parties' nominees to determine who wins office.

Caucus

A local party meeting where participants discuss candidates and select delegates

Primary

An election in which voters choose their preferred candidate.

Closed Primary

Only registered party members can vote in their party's primary.

Semi-Closed Primary

Registered party members and certain unaffiliated voters can participate

Open Primary

Voters can choose which party's primary to participate in, regardless of party registration.

Frontloading

States schedule their primaries earlier to gain more influence over the presidential nomination process

Effects of Early Primaries

Early primary states receive more media attention and can influence which candidates gain momentum or drop out.

Delegates

Individuals selected to represent voters at a political party's national convention and help officially nominate a presidential candidate.

National Convention

A major political party meeting where delegates officially nominate the presidential and vice-presidential candidates and approve the party platform

Swing States (Battleground States)

States where both major political parties have a realistic chance of winning, making them important in presidential elections.

Position Issues

Issues where candidates have different opinions or proposed solutions, such as taxes or immigration

Valence Issues

Issues where most voters agree on the desired outcome, such as a strong economy or national security.

How Campaigns Have Changed

Campaigns have become more expensive and technology-driven, increasingly relying on social media, television advertising, polling, and targeted campaigning.

Impact of Debates

Debates allow candidates to communicate their policies, demonstrate their communication skills, and influence undecided voters.

Popular Vote

The total number of individual votes cast by citizens for each candidate.

Electoral College

The system used to elect the president through 538 electors. A candidate needs at least 270 electoral votes to win.

Winner-Take-All Elections

A system in which the candidate who wins the most votes in a state receives all of that state's electoral votes. Maine and Nebraska are exceptions because they use a district-based allocation system. Encourages candidates to focus on swing states.

Faithless Electors

Electoral College members who vote for someone other than the candidate they pledged to support.

Why the Electoral College Exists

The Founders created it as a compromise between direct popular election and congressional selection of the president. It also reflected the federal structure of the country.

Midterm Elections

Congressional elections held halfway through a president's four-year term. All House seats and approximately one-third of Senate seats are contested.

Coattail Effect

When a popular presidential candidate helps candidates from the same political party win congressional elections.

Midterm Effect (Surge and Decline/Presidential Penalty)

The president's party often loses congressional seats during midterm elections because supporters may be less motivated, while opposition voters become more energized.

Incumbent Advantage

The benefits current officeholders have when running for reelection, including name recognition, experience, fundraising connections, and media attention.

Redistricting

The process of redrawing electoral district boundaries, usually following the census every ten years.

Gerrymandering

Drawing electoral district boundaries to give one political party or group an unfair electoral advantage.

Linkage Institutions

Connect citizens with government through elections, political parties, interest groups, and the media.

Functions and impact of political parties

Political parties organize elections, recruit candidates, develop platforms, and coordinate government.

Party changes and adaptations

Parties change their policies, messages, and coalitions to attract voters and respond to changing political conditions.

Structural barriers to third parties

Election laws, ballot access requirements, campaign financing, and the Electoral College make it difficult for third-party candidates to succeed.

Political Party

An organized group of people who share political beliefs and work together to win elections and influence government.

Functions of Political Parties

• Recruit and nominate candidates.

• Organize elections.

• Develop political platforms.

• Mobilize voters.

• Coordinate government officials.

• Inform citizens about political issues.

Party Roles in Congress

Political parties organize congressional leadership, assign committee positions, coordinate voting, and establish legislative priorities.

Party Identification

A person's psychological attachment or loyalty to a political party, such as Democrat, Republican, or independent.

The U.S. Party Systems

Historical periods in which the two major political parties and their supporters have changed. The U.S. has experienced several different party systems throughout its history.

Critical Elections

Elections that cause major changes in political party support and often lead to a new political alignment.

Party Realignment

A major and lasting shift in voter support from one political party to another.

Regional Realignment

A significant change in which political parties dominate particular regions of the country.

Party Dealignment

A decline in voters' loyalty to political parties, resulting in more independent voters.

Two-Party System

A political system in which two major political parties dominate elections and government.

Third Parties

Political parties other than the two major parties (Democratic and Republican).

Structural Barriers to Third-Party Success

• Winner-take-all elections.

• Electoral College rules.

• Difficult ballot access requirements.

• Limited campaign funding.

• Media attention focused on major parties.

• Voters' fear of wasting their vote.

Ideological Parties

Third parties organized around a specific political ideology or set of beliefs.

Single-Issue Parties

Parties focused primarily on one major political issue.

Splinter Parties

Parties formed when members break away from an existing major political party because of disagreements.

Ross Perot – Reform Party

Ross Perot ran as an independent candidate in 1992 and 1996. His 1992 campaign received approximately 19% of the popular vote. He later helped establish the Reform Party.

Roles of Third Parties

• Introduce new political ideas.

• Bring attention to ignored issues.

• Challenge major political parties.

• Influence major party platforms.

• Give voters additional choices.

Campaign finance

The organization, funding, and strategies of campaigns influence elections by determining how candidates advertise, communicate with voters, and compete for office.

How Campaigns Use Money

Campaigns use money for advertising, staff salaries, travel, polling, campaign events, voter outreach, and technology.

Hard Money

Donations made directly to candidates or political parties that are subject to federal contribution limits and regulations

Soft Money

Money historically given to political parties for general party-building activities rather than directly supporting individual candidates. Federal law now restricts national parties from accepting certain soft-money contributions.

Independent Expenditures

Money spent to support or oppose a candidate without coordinating with that candidate's campaign.

Political Action Committees (PACs)

Organizations that raise and contribute money to political candidates, subject to federal contribution limits.

Federal Election Campaign Act (FECA)

A 1971 law, later amended in 1974, that regulated campaign contributions and expenditures and established the Federal Election Commission (FEC).

Buckley v. Valeo (1976)

Supreme Court case that upheld limits on campaign contributions but ruled that restricting independent political spending violated the First Amendment, because spending money on political communication is a form of protected expression.

Campaign contributions can be limited, but independent expenditures receive First Amendment protection.

Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 (McCain-Feingold Act/BCRA)

Law that restricted national political parties from raising and spending certain soft money and regulated certain election-related advertisements.

McConnell v. FEC (2003)

Supreme Court case that largely upheld the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act's restrictions on soft money and certain political advertisements.

Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (2010)

Supreme Court case that ruled corporations and labor unions can spend unlimited amounts of money independently to support or oppose political candidates. It did not allow unlimited direct contributions to candidates.

Protects independent political spending.

Super PACs

Political committees that can raise and spend unlimited amounts of money to independently support or oppose candidates but cannot directly contribute to candidates or coordinate spending with their campaigns.

Can raise unlimited funds for independent expenditures.

Benefits and problems of interest groups

Interest groups give citizens a voice and provide information to policymakers, but wealthy and powerful groups may have disproportionate influence.

Types and resources of interest groups

Groups with more money, members, expertise, and organizational resources generally have greater opportunities to influence government.

Political actors and public policy

Interest groups, political parties, media organizations, citizens, and government officials all influence public policy.

Interest Groups

Organizations of people who share common goals and attempt to influence public policy and government decisions

Roles of Interest Groups

• Influence government decisions.

• Represent citizens' interests.

• Educate the public.

• Encourage political participation.

• Monitor government actions.

Functions of Interest Groups

Lobbying, electioneering, grassroots mobilization, providing information to lawmakers, and influencing public opinion.