Anatomy Exam 1

anatomy

means “a cutting open”

• study of structures of the body

• study of the physical relationships among body parts

gross or macroscopic anatomy

study of large structures and features, usually visible with the unaided eye

microscopic anatomy

study of structures that cannot be seen without magnification

specific functions are performed by _____________ ______________

specific structures

physiology

study of function; complex and more difficult to examine than anatomical structures

levels of organization within the body

chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level, organism level

chemical level

cells are the smallest living units in the body

cellular level

atoms combine to form molecules

organ level

an organ is composed of two or more tissues working together to perform specific functions

organ system level

organ systems consist of interacting organs

types of cells in the body

free living cells- smallest living structures

smooth muscle cells- long and slender for contraction

red blood cells- flattened discs to slip through capillaries

fat cells- spherical for fat (lipid) storage

cells lining digestive tract- shaped for absorption

sperm- flagella for swimming

nerve cells- some have extensive branching→ hugh surface area for communication

tissues

specialized groups of cells and cell products

histology

the study of tissues

four primary tissue types

-epithelial tissue

-connective tissue

-muscle tissue

-neural tissue

epithelial tissue

• covers and protects every exposed surface

• lines internal passageways and chambers; surrounds internal cavities

• produces glandular secretions

connective tissue

• fills internal spaces; provides structural support; stores energy

• diverse in appearance but all forms contain cells surrounded by an extracellular matrix

  • amount and consistency of matrix varies by the particular connective tissue type

muscle tissue

contracts to produce active movement, provide support, maintain blood flow and sable body temp

three types of muscle tissue-

• skeletal

• smooth

• cardiac

neural tissue

specialized to carry information or directions within the body

-two basic types of cells

• neurons (nerve cells)- transmit information in form of electrical impulses

• neuroglia (supporting cells)- isolate & support neurons

integumentary system

• protects the body against environmental hazards

• helps control body temperature

• includes skin, hair, follicles, glands, nails, sensory receptors

skeletal system

• provides support; protects tissues

• stores minerals; forms blood cells

• bone, cartilages, joints, bone marrow

muscular system

• produces movement

• provides support

• generates heat

• smooth, skeletal, cardiac muscles, and tendons

nervous system

• provides rabid control and regulation; immediate responses to stimuli

• coordinates activities of other organ systems

• brain, spinal cord, peripheral nerves

endocrine system

• secretes chemical messengers (ex- hormones)

• directs long-term changes in other systems

• kidneys, pancreas, gonads, glands

cardiovascular system

• carries chemicals, cells, dissolved materials to all parts of the body, including nutrients, wastes, and gasses

• heart, blood vessels, blood

respiratory system

• delivers air to as exchange sites in lungs (between air and circulating blood)

• produces sound

• nasal cavities, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

lymphatic system

• defends the body against infection and disease

• returns tissue fluid to the bloodstream

• lymph vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus

digestive system

• processes food and absorbs nutrients

• excretes waste

urinary system

• eliminates excess water, salts, and wastes

• kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra

reproductive system

• provides for the continuity of life/supports embryonic development

• produces sex cells and hormones

homeostatic regulation

• physiological adjustments to preserve homeostasis in variable environments

homeostasis

• presence of stable internal environment

• failure to maintain homeostasis leads to illness or death

components of homeostatic regulatory mechanism

• Receptor- senses environmental change

• Control Center- processes information from the receptor and sends out commands

• Effector- responds to commands opposing stimulus

homeostatic control is ____ ________

not precise

• it maintains a normal range around the set point; actual value fluctuates

feedback

stimulation of a receptor triggers a response that changes the environment at that receptor

negative feedback

the effector opposes or negates the original stimulus; minimizes change

positive feedback

stimulus produces a response that exaggerates or enhances the original change

• tends to produce extreme responses

• does not restore homeostasis

anatomical position

• standing up

• hands at the sides

• feet together and facing forward

• eyes facing forward

supine

face up

prone

face down

four abdominopelvic quadrants

perpendicular lines that intersect at naval

nine abdominopelvic regions

quadruped directional terms

superior (cranial)

direction toward the head or upper part of the body or structure; above

inferior (caudal)

lower part of structure or body; direction away from the head or upper part of the body; below

ventral (anterior)

toward or at front of the body; in front of

dorsal (posterior)

toward or at the back of the body; behind

medial

toward or at at the midline of the body; inner side of

lateral

away from the midline; on the outer side of

intermediate

between medial and lateral; in the middle of

proximal

close to the origin of the body part or point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk

distal

farther from the origin to the point of attachment

superficial (external)

toward or at the body surface; away from the core

deep (internal)

away from the body surface; more internal or toward the core of the body

frontal or coronal plane

parallel to long axis; divides anterior from posterior

sagittal plane

divides the body into left and right parts; parallel to the long axis

midsagittal- directly down the middle

transverse or horizontal plane

oriented perpendicular to long axis; divides superior from inferior

also called a cross section

true body cavities

lined by a serous membrane and share a common embryological origin

viscera

internal organs partially or completely surrounded by body cavities connected to the rest of the body

heart is surrounded by by the __________________ ___________

pericardial cavity, which is a type of serous cavity that reduces friction during heart movement; permits heart to change size and shape while beating

two major cavities separated by the diaphram

thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

thoracic cavity

everything deep to the chest wall

3 subdivisions

• two pleural cavities- lined by pleura, contain the lungs

• Mediastinum- contains connective tissue and pericardial cavity containing the heart

abdominopelvic

everything deep to abdominal and pelvic walls

two portions

• abdominal cavity- contains digestive glands and organs

• pelvic cavity- contains reproductive organs

within the abdominal cavity is the ____________ cavity lined by a serous membrane called ____________

peritoneal; peritoneum

organs that lie posterior to the peritoneal membrane

retroperitoneal

organs extend inferior to the peritoneal cavity

infraperitoneal

two main divisions of the skeleton

axial (80 bones)

appendicular (126)

functions of the skeletal system

support

• structural support

• framework for attachment for soft tissues and organs

storage of minerals and lipids

• 
  

blood cell production

• red bone marrow= production site for blood cells

protection

• protects delicate tissues and organs

  • ribs protect heart and lungs

  • skull protects brain

  • vertebrae protect spinal cord

  • pelvis protects digestive and reproductive organs

leverage

• allows movement through muscle attachment and joint function, enabling locomotion and manipulation of the environment

6 categories of bone based on shape

• flat bones

• sutural bones

• long bones

• irregular bones

• sesamoid bones

• short bones

Elevation/ projections

Tendon and ligament attachment

Depressions/grooves / tunnels

Sites for blood vessels or nerves to lie alongside or penetrate bone

Head

Expanded proximal end of a bone that forms part of a joint

Diaphysis

elongated body of a long bone

Neck

narrow connection between the head and diaphysis of a bone

Process

any projection or bump

Tubercle

small, rounded projection

Tuberosity

small rough projection that takes up a broad area

Trochlea

smooth grooved articular process shaped like a pulley

Condyle

smooth rounded articular process

Trochanter

large rough projection

Facet

small flat articular surface

Crest

prominent ridge

Line

low-ridge, more delicate than a crest

Spine

pointed or narrow process

Ramus

extension of a bone that makes an angle with the rest of a structure

Canal or meatus

large passageway through a bone

Sinus

chamber within a bone, normally filled with air

Foramen

small, rounded passageway for blood vessels, nerves to pass through bone

Fissure

elongated cleft or gap

Sulcus

deep, narrow groove

Fossa

shallow depression or recess in bone structure

epiphysis

expanded area at each end

• consists largely of spongy bone (trabecular bone)

  • network of struts and plates

  • resists forces from various directions; body weight to diaphysis, joints

• outer covering is compact bone

  • strong, organized tissue

articular cartilage

part of epiphysis; covers portions of epiphysis that forms articulations

avascular, so relies on synovial (joint) fluid for O₂ and nutrients, and for waste elimination

metaphysis

connects ephiphysis to shaft

diaphysis

long, tubular portion of the bone

• wall composed of thick layer of compact bone

• contains medullary cavity

  • filled with two types of marrow

    • Red bone marrow: involved in red blood cell production

    • yellow bone marrow: adipose tissue

nutrient foramen

tunnel providing access to marrow cavity

• supply osteons of compact bone with blood

metaphyseal artery and metaphyseal vein

• cary blood to/from metaphysis

• connect to epiphyseal arteries/veins

osteocytes

mature bone cells that cant divide

osteocytes maintain ________ and ________ content surrounding matrix

protein; mineral

• dissolve matrix to release minerals

• rebuild matrix to deposit mineral crystals

osteocytes occupy _________ (pockets)

lacunae

• separated by layers of matrix= lamellae

• interconnected by canaliculi

osteoblasts

produce new body matrix