Land Based Empires - Chapter 3 Review Guide

Gunpowder Empires

• Large, land based empires that used firearms, cannons, and artillery to rapidly conquer and control massive territories

  • Ottoman Empire

  • Safavid Empire

  • Mughal Empire

Ottoman Empire

• This was a Sunni Islamic, land-based gunpowder empire

• They had the Devshirme System

• They had the Millet System

• Conquered Constantinople (became their capital)

Mehmed II

• AKA Mehmed the Conqueror

• He was the Ottoman Sultan who led the attack on Constantinople

  • Used massive cannons

• He renamed Constantinople to Istanbul

Constantinople

• This was the capital of the Byzantine Empire

• It fell after the attack by Mehmed II and it became the capital of the Ottoman Empire

  • Marks the end of the Byzantine Empire

Hagia Sophia

• Architectural and religious landmark in Istanbul

• Demonstrates how rulers used architecture to legitimize their authority

• Reflects a blending of cultures

Janissaries

• Elite soldiers and bodyguards who formed the army of the Ottoman Empire

• They were recruited through the Devshirme System

Devshirme

• System in the Ottoman Empire where Christian boys were forcibly recruited to convert to Islam and train to become Janissaries or government bureaucrat

• Recruits could have social mobility and a better future

Millet System

• System in the Ottoman Empire that allowed non-Muslim religious minorities to govern their own affairs

  • Jews and Christians

• Each millet led by a religious official

  • They answered directly to the Ottoman Sultan

• Non-muslims had to pay the Jizya Tax

Suleiman the Magnificent

• AKA Suleiman the Lawgiver

• Sultan of the Ottoman Empire

• Standardized Ottoman Law alongside Sharia Law to centralize control over such a large region

• Consolidated power using Devshirme System

Safavid Empire

• Persian gunpowder empire in current Iran

• Wedged between the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire

• Capitalized on silk and carpet weaving trade

• Founded by Shah Ismail

Shah Ismail

• He was the founder of the Safavid Empire

• He forcibly converted the majority Sunni population into Shi’a Islam

  • Used religion to legitimize his power

• He relied on the Qizilbash as his military force

Qizilbash

• A coalition of Turkmen militant Shia groups

  • They were loyal to the Safavid Empire

• They wore red hats symbolizing their allegiance to the Safavid Empire and the Twelve Shi'a Imams

• They were the elite military backbone of the Safavid Empire

Shi’a Islam

• Branch of Islam that believed that leadership should remain with the descendants of the Prophet Muhammed and his bloodline

Sunni Islam

• Branch of Islam that believed leaders should be elected based on consensus and capability

  • No based on family lineage

Mughal Empire

• Muslim ruled gunpowder empire

• It dominated most of the Indian subcontinent

• Founded by Babur

• They were a Sunni Muslim region that ruled over a Hindu majority

Babur

• He founded the Mughal Empire

• He was a descendant of both Genghis Khan and Timur

Akbar

• He was the 3rd ruler of the Mughal Empire

• He abolished the Jizya Tax

• Promoted the philosophy of universal peace (sulh-i-kul)

• Integrated Hindu elites into society

Jizya

• This was a tax levied by Islamic states on non-Muslim subjects

  • Paid the tax in exchange for state protection, legal autonomy, and exemption from military service

• Mainly used by the Mughal Empire

• Abolished by Akbar

Shah Jahan

• He was the 5th Mughal ruler who commissioned the building of the Taj Mahal

  • Symbolized state power and legitimacy

• Moved away from the religious tolerance Akbar had

  • Allowed Islamic groups to grow

Taj Mahal

• Premier example of Mughal architecture and power

• Built by Shah Jahan to honor his wife

• Projected their power over a majority non-Muslim population

Aurangzeb

• Mughal Emperor who expanded it greatly

• Shifted away from religious tolerance towards strict Islam

Zamindars

• Local landowning elites in South Asia under the Mughal Empire

• They acted as administrative intermediaries between the central government and the peasantry

• They collected taxes from the peasants

Sikhism

• Monotheistic religion founded under the Guru Nanak in the Punjab region of South Asia

• It was a belief system emerging from interactions between Hinduism and Islam during the Mughal era

• Rejected polytheism

Bureaucracy

• This is an organized system of non-elected government officials who carry out laws, collect taxes, manage daily governance, and enforce imperial or state policies

• Used in these empires to assert their power and maintain order

Tax Farming

• This is a revenue system where a central government auctions the right to collect taxes from its citizens to private individuals or high bidders

• Elites (AKA Tax Farmers) paid the state a fixed lump sum or regular installments upfront

  • Then, the tax farmer collected the actual taxes from the people

Tokugawa Shogunate

• This was Japan’s last feudal military government

• It brought over 250 years of internal peace and stability known as the Edo period

Divine Right

• The political and religious doctrine asserting that a monarch's authority comes directly from God rather than from the people

Absolutism

• This is a political system in which a single monarch holds total, unrestricted sovereign power over a state

• Accountable only to God not the people

• Monarchs weakened the political power of the nobles

Absolute Monarchy

• A system of government in which a single ruler holds complete unrestricted power over a state

• They have divine right

• This reduced the power of regional lords

Cardinal Richelieu

• He was a French Catholic Cardinal

• He was the Chief Minister to King Louis XIII

• He stripped Huguenots of their rights

• He worked to make the French crown supreme by crushing the nobility

Louis XIV (14th)

• AKA the Sun King

  • Absolute monarch of France

• He claimed his power came from god and he built the Palace of Versailles

• He forced the nobility to live here so he could watch over them

• He centralized state power

Palace of Versailles

• Royal palace built by King Louis XIV

• This was a monumental architecture used to legitimize and consolidate absolute rule

• It helped the king have control over the nobility

Intendants

• These were royal officials appointed by the French crown to enforce laws and collect taxes

• Since they were appointed and removable they were very loyal to the king

Mercantillism

• An economic theory that says a nation's power depends on accumulating gold and silver through a favorable balance of trade

  • Export more than import

Jean-Baptiste Colbert

• He was King Louis XIV’s Minister of Finance

• He championed mercantilism

• He regulated the economy by imposing high tariffs on foreign goods

English Civil War

• A series of conflicts and political struggles between Royalists and Roundheads

  • Royalists → Cavaliers who were loyal to King Charles I

  • Roundheads → Parliamentarians led by Oliver Cromwell

• Fought over how England should be governed

• Roundheads won leading to the execution of Charles I

Peter the Great

• Russian tsar and absolutist monarch who forcibly westernized and modernized Russia to transform it into a major European power

• He founded the city of St. Petersburg

Boyars

• Russia’s landowning aristocracy

• Highest ranking social class below the princes and tsars

• They served as military commanders, advisors, and members of the royal council

  • Controlled the peasants

Westernization

• The deliberate or forced adoption of Western European ideas, technology, political institutions, military structures, and cultural practices

• Peter the Great did this with Russia

St. Petersburg

• This was the capital city of the Russian Empire

• Founded by Tsar Peter the Great

• It was seen as the window to the west

Reformation

• Challenged papal authority and Catholic practices

• Created Protestant denominations

• Began when Martin Luther criticized the church for corruption

Pope Leo X

• Head of the Catholic Church

• He authorized the sale of indulgences

  • Sparked the Protestant Reformation

• Went against Martin Luther

Indulgences

• This was a Roman Catholic practice that reduced the time spent in purgatory for sins that had already been forgiven

• This was seen as corrupt because it didn’t do anything and the church was taking people’s money

Martin Luther

• German monk who sparked the Protestant Reformation

• Luther wrote a list of complaints challenging the Roman Catholic Church

  • 95 Theses

  • Most notably the sale of indulgences

• His ideas spread wide and made people question the church

95 Theses

• This was a list of grievances written by Martin Luther against the church

• Attacked the corrupt selling of indulgences

Printing Press

• This was an invention that used reusable movable metal type that mass-produced texts

• Invented by Johannes Gutenberg

• Printed things much faster than before

Charles V

• He was the Holy Roman Emperor

• He opposed Martin Luther and fiercely defended Catholicism

  • Wanted to preserve Catholic traditions against Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation

• Summoned Martin Luther at the Diet of Worms

Diet of Worms

• This was an assembly of the Holy Roman Empire held in Worms, Germany

• This was led by Charles V

• It was convened to address Martin Luther and his theological challenges to the Roman Catholic Church

  • After his publication of the 95 Theses

• Luther was asked to take back his writings which he refused to do

Lutheranism

• This was a branch of Protestantism sparked by Martin Luther and his 95 Theses

• Salvation is achieved through faith alone

  • Good works, such as buying indulgences, have no impact

• The bible is the ultimate authority not the Pope

Protestantism

• This was a branch of Christianity that broke away from the Roman Catholic Church

• They were against the church’s corrupt practices such as the sale of indulgences

• Happened during the Protestant Reformation

Peace of Augsburg

• This was the treaty that legally ended religious warfare between Emperor Charles V and the Lutheran Schmalkaldic League within the Holy Roman Empire

• Only recognized Catholicism and Lutheranism

• Did not grant individual religious freedom

  • Subjects had to conform to their local ruler's chosen faith

John Calvin

• French theologian and leader of the Protestant Reformation

• Created the religious system that emphasized the absolute sovereignty of God and the supreme authority of the Bible

• Believed in predestination and the elect

Predestination

• Idea that God has already determined who will be saved and who will go to hell

• Independent of good works or human actions

Henry VIII

• He was the monarch of England and his desire for a male heir led to the English Reformation

• He was married to Catherine of Aragon and she couldn’t have a son

  • He broke away from the Roman Catholic Church after the Pope refused to annul his marriage

• Established the Church of England and declared himself its head

Anglican Church

• AKA Church of England

• This was a Protestant Christian church created by King Henry VIII after he broke away from the Roman Catholic Church

• Created through the Act of Supremacy

  • Head of church was monarch not the pope

Act of Supremacy

• This was a law passed by the Parliament of England that declared King Henry VIII the head of the Church of England

• Severed the nation’s ties to the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church

Counter-Reformation

• This was the Roman Catholic Church’s response to the Protestant Reformation

• Used aggressive measures to stop the spread of Protestantism and re-establish Catholic authority

• Included the Council of Trent and the Jesuits

Council of Trent

• This was the Roman Catholic Church’s council that launched the Counter-Reformation in response to the Protestant Reformation

• Salvation through both faith and good works

• Prohibited simony

  • Selling of church positions

• Reformed the church to have less corruption

Jesuit Order

• This was a Roman Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius of Loyola

• Aimed to stop the spread of Protestantism and spread Catholicism

• Demonstrated total obedience to the Pope

• Sent missionaries to convert others

Huguenots

• French Calvinist Protestants

• Their rise led to bitter religious and civil conflicts with the Catholic majority and the French monarchy

St. Bartholomew’s Day

• This was a targeted wave of Catholic mob violence and assassinations directed against Huguenots

  • During the French Wars of Religion

• Instigated by Catherine de Medici and the Catholic Guise faction

• Began in Paris during the wedding of Protestant Henry of Navarre and a Catholic woman

• Slaughtered thousands of Huguenots and crippled Protestant leadership

Edict of Nantes

• This was a decree signed by King Henry IV of France that granted Huguenots religious toleration, civil rights, and political privileges to end the decades-long French Wars of Religion

Religious Wars

• These were conflicts where religious divisions from the Protestant Reformation combined with political, territorial, and economic power struggles

• EX: French Wars of Religion (St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre; Edict of Nantes) and Thirty Years’ War

Thirty Years’ War

• This was a conflict fought mainly in the Holy Roman Empire

• Began as a religious struggle between Catholics and Protestants and evolved into a political power struggle over European dominance

• Ferdinand II closed Protestant churches

• The Hapsburg family controlled the HRE

Peace of Westphalia

• A series of peace treaties that were signed that ended the 30 Years’ War

• Created modern states

• The Hapsburgs were weakened and France gained some of Germany

How did gunpowder help the Ottoman Empire establish and expand its control over surrounding territories?

Gunpowder helped the Ottoman Empire expand by allowing its armies to use powerful cannons and firearms in battle. These weapons helped the Ottomans conquer fortified cities, including Constantinople in 1453. The Ottomans also used gunpowder weapons to defeat rival armies and strengthen their control over conquered territories. This military advantage helped them build a large, powerful empire across parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa.

Why was Mehmed II’s conquest of Constantinople significant to the growth of the Ottoman Empire?

Mehmed II’s conquest of Constantinople in 1453 was significant because it ended the Byzantine Empire and gave the Ottomans control of an important trade and transportation center between Europe and Asia. The city became the Ottoman capital and a major center of government, trade, and culture. This victory strengthened Ottoman power and helped the empire expand into surrounding territories.

How did the Ottomans transform Constantinople and the Hagia Sophia following their conquest of Byzantium?

After conquering Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans transformed the city into their new capital, renaming it Istanbul over time and building mosques, markets, schools, and other public buildings. They converted the Hagia Sophia from a Christian cathedral into a mosque by adding Islamic features, including a mihrab and minarets. These changes reflected the growth of Ottoman Islamic culture while allowing Constantinople to remain an important center of trade, government, and culture.

How did the Janissaries and devshirme system help Ottoman rulers strengthen their military and political authority?

The devshirme system recruited Christian boys from the Ottoman Empire, converted them to Islam, and trained them for military or government service. Many became Janissaries, elite soldiers who were loyal directly to the sultan. This helped Ottoman rulers build a strong, disciplined army and reduce their dependence on powerful nobles. As a result, the sultan strengthened his control over both the military and the government.

How did the millet system allow the Ottoman Empire to govern its religiously diverse population effectively?

The millet system allowed religious communities, such as Christians and Jews, to manage many of their own religious, educational, and legal affairs. Each community was led by religious leaders who helped maintain order and collect taxes. This allowed the Ottomans to govern a diverse population without forcing everyone to follow the same religion. As a result, the empire maintained greater stability and strengthened the sultan’s control.

Why is the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent considered the height of Ottoman political and military power?

Suleiman the Magnificent’s reign (1520–1566) is considered the height of Ottoman power because the empire expanded into parts of Europe, Asia, and North Africa through successful military campaigns. He strengthened the navy, expanded trade, and improved the legal and administrative systems of the empire. Under his rule, the Ottoman Empire became a major political and military force that influenced much of the world.

How did Shah Ismail and the Qizilbash contribute to the creation and expansion of the Safavid Empire?

Shah Ismail founded the Safavid Empire in 1501 by leading the Qizilbash, a loyal group of warrior followers who helped him conquer territory. The Qizilbash provided the military strength that allowed Ismail to defeat rivals and establish control over Persia (modern-day Iran). Ismail also made Twelver Shi’a Islam the official religion, helping create a shared religious identity for the empire.

How did the division between Sunni Islam and Shi’a Islam contribute to conflict between the Ottomans and Safavids?

The Ottomans followed Sunni Islam, while the Safavids made Shi’a Islam their official religion, creating religious tensions between the empires. These differences increased political rivalry as both empires competed for territory and influence in the Middle East. The conflict led to repeated wars, including the Ottoman victory over the Safavids at the Battle of Chaldiran in 1514.

How did Babur use gunpowder technology to establish the Mughal Empire in South Asia?

Babur used gunpowder weapons, including cannons and matchlock guns, to defeat larger armies in South Asia. In 1526, he used these weapons and effective military tactics to defeat the Delhi Sultanate at the First Battle of Panipat. This victory allowed Babur to establish the Mughal Empire in India and begin expanding his control over the region.

How did Akbar’s policies toward religious minorities help strengthen and stabilize the diverse Mughal Empire?

Akbar strengthened the Mughal Empire by promoting religious tolerance and allowing people of different faiths to practice their religions freely. He removed taxes on non-Muslims, included Hindus in government positions, and encouraged cooperation between religious groups. These policies reduced religious conflict, gained the loyalty of his diverse subjects, and helped keep the empire stable and united.

What was the jizya, and how did its use reflect changing Mughal policies toward religious minorities?

The jizya was a tax that non-Muslims, especially Hindus, were required to pay under Muslim rule. Akbar abolished the tax to promote religious tolerance and equality, but later Mughal ruler Aurangzeb brought it back in 1679. This reflected a shift from Akbar’s policies of religious tolerance toward stricter Islamic policies that increased tensions with religious minorities.

How did Shah Jahan use the Taj Mahal and monumental architecture to demonstrate Mughal wealth and authority?

Shah Jahan built the Taj Mahal and other grand structures to display the Mughal Empire’s enormous wealth, power, and artistic achievements. The Taj Mahal’s expensive materials, detailed designs, and massive size demonstrated the emperor’s authority and resources. These monuments also strengthened his legacy by showing the empire’s cultural and political greatness.

How did the religious policies of Aurangzeb differ from those established earlier by Akbar?

Akbar promoted religious tolerance by allowing different religions to practice freely and abolishing the jizya tax on non-Muslims. In contrast, Aurangzeb followed stricter Islamic policies, reinstated the jizya tax, and placed restrictions on some non-Muslim religious practices. These changes increased tensions between Muslims and religious minorities, weakening the unity that Akbar had encouraged.

How did zamindars help Mughal rulers collect taxes and administer their large and diverse empires?

Zamindars were local landowners or officials who helped Mughal rulers collect taxes from farmers and rural communities. They acted as intermediaries between the government and the people, sending tax revenue to the emperor. Their local influence helped the Mughals manage large territories and maintain control over distant regions.

How did the growth of Sikhism reflect religious interactions and tension within Mughal-controlled South Asia?

Sikhism developed in South Asia by combining elements of Hinduism and Islam while teaching belief in one God and equality. It reflected the religious and cultural interactions happening under Mughal rule. However, tensions grew when some Mughal rulers persecuted Sikhs, leading to conflict and resistance against the empire.

How did bureaucracy and tax farming help land-based rulers administer and finance their expanding empires?

Bureaucracy helped land-based rulers govern large empires by creating organized systems of officials who managed laws, records, and local administration. Tax farming allowed rulers to collect revenue by hiring individuals to gather taxes from the population in exchange for a fee or a share of the money collected. Together, these systems helped rulers maintain control over distant territories, fund their armies, and pay for government expenses.

How did the Tokugawa Shogunate consolidate political authority and establish greater stability within Japan?

The Tokugawa Shogunate consolidated power by placing the emperor in a mostly ceremonial role while the shogun controlled the government and military. It controlled powerful daimyo (regional lords) through the alternate attendance system, which required them to spend time in Edo and keep their families there. The shogunate also restricted foreign influence and Christianity to reduce outside threats. These policies helped prevent rebellions and maintain peace and stability in Japan.

How did the concept of divine right help European rulers justify the expansion of absolute monarchy?

Divine right was the belief that kings received their authority directly from God and were only accountable to Him. European rulers used this idea to justify absolute monarchy by claiming their power could not be challenged by ordinary people or governments. This allowed monarchs to strengthen their control, limit opposition, and centralize political authority.

What characteristics defined absolutism, and how did absolute monarchs attempt to centralize political authority?

Absolutism was a system of government in which monarchs held nearly unlimited political power, often justified by divine right. Absolute rulers centralized authority by controlling the military, collecting taxes, creating laws, and limiting the power of nobles and representative assemblies. They also used government officials and standing armies to enforce their decisions. This allowed monarchs to strengthen their control over their kingdoms and reduce opposition.

How did Cardinal Richelieu strengthen the French monarchy and weaken potential challenges to royal authority?

Cardinal Richelieu strengthened the French monarchy by increasing the king’s power and reducing the influence of powerful nobles. He weakened the Huguenots' political and military independence while allowing them to keep some religious freedoms. He also expanded the central government and used royal officials to enforce the king’s authority. These actions helped establish a stronger, more centralized French monarchy.

How did Louis XIV use the Palace of Versailles to control the nobility and demonstrate his absolute power?

Louis XIV used the Palace of Versailles to display his wealth and power while keeping nobles close to him and under his control. He required many nobles to live at or regularly visit Versailles, where he could monitor their activities and distract them with court life. The palace’s grand architecture and lavish ceremonies reinforced the idea that the king held absolute authority over France.

How did intendants help Louis XIV extend royal authority throughout France and weaken traditional local powers?

Intendants were royal officials appointed by Louis XIV to oversee provinces and enforce the king’s policies. They supervised tax collection, justice, and local administration, ensuring that the king’s orders were followed throughout France. Because they answered directly to the king, they reduced the influence of nobles and local leaders. This helped Louis XIV centralize power and strengthen absolute monarchy.

How did mercantilism and Jean-Baptiste Colbert attempt to increase the economic power of Louis XIV’s France?

Mercantilism was an economic policy that aimed to increase a country's wealth by exporting more goods than it imported and accumulating gold and silver. Jean-Baptiste Colbert helped Louis XIV strengthen France’s economy by supporting manufacturing, increasing exports, raising tariffs on foreign goods, and expanding trade. These policies were designed to make France wealthier, reduce dependence on other countries, and strengthen the king’s power.

How did the English Civil War demonstrate the limitations of absolute monarchy and resistance to royal authority?

The English Civil War showed that a monarch’s power could be challenged when King Charles I attempted to rule without Parliament and ignored its authority. Parliament’s supporters fought against the king, eventually defeating his forces and having him executed in 1649. This demonstrated that rulers could not always govern without limits and that Parliament could challenge royal authority.

How did Peter the Great attempt to Westernize Russia and strengthen the power of the Russian state?

Peter the Great attempted to Westernize Russia by adopting European technology, clothing, education, military practices, and government reforms. He modernized the Russian military, expanded the navy, and built the new capital of St. Petersburg to increase connections with Europe. He also strengthened the central government by increasing the tsar’s control over nobles and government officials. These changes helped Russia become a stronger military and political power in Europe.

How did Peter the Great reduce the traditional influence of the boyars while increasing his own political authority?

Peter the Great weakened the boyars by forcing nobles to serve the state through military or government positions. He introduced the Table of Ranks, which allowed people to gain status through service rather than just family background. He also required nobles to adopt Western customs and follow his reforms. These policies reduced the boyars’ traditional influence and strengthened Peter’s absolute power as tsar.

Why did Peter the Great establish St. Petersburg, and how did the city symbolize his Westernization policies?

Peter the Great established St. Petersburg in 1703 to create a new capital with access to the Baltic Sea and increase Russia’s trade and connections with Western Europe. He designed the city using European architecture and encouraged Western customs and culture. St. Petersburg symbolized his goal of transforming Russia into a modern, powerful European state.

How did the sale of indulgences contribute to Martin Luther’s challenge against the authority of the Catholic Church?

The sale of indulgences involved people paying money to the Catholic Church in exchange for reduced punishment for their sins. Martin Luther criticized this practice because he believed forgiveness came through faith in God, not payments to the Church. His opposition helped inspire the Protestant Reformation and challenged the Catholic Church’s religious authority and practices.

Why did Martin Luther’s 95 Theses become an important catalyst for the Protestant Reformation in Europe?

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses challenged the Catholic Church’s practices, especially the sale of indulgences and the Church’s authority over salvation. His ideas spread quickly through the printing press, encouraging people to question Catholic teachings and religious leadership. This sparked the Protestant Reformation, leading to the creation of new Protestant churches and major religious changes across Europe.

How did the printing press contribute to the rapid spread of Luther’s ideas and the growth of Protestantism?

The printing press allowed Martin Luther’s writings, including his 95 Theses, to be copied quickly and distributed throughout Europe. This helped his ideas reach large numbers of people who began questioning the authority and practices of the Catholic Church. As Protestant beliefs spread, more people broke away from Catholicism and established new Protestant churches.

How did Charles V respond to Martin Luther during the Diet of Worms, and what was the result?

At the Diet of Worms in 1521, Charles V ordered Martin Luther to recant (take back) his criticisms of the Catholic Church, but Luther refused. Charles V declared Luther an outlaw and banned his writings throughout the Holy Roman Empire. However, Frederick the Wise protected Luther, allowing him to continue spreading his ideas and helping the Protestant Reformation grow.

How did the Peace of Augsburg attempt to resolve religious conflict in the Holy Roman Empire?

The Peace of Augsburg, signed in 1555, attempted to end religious conflict by allowing rulers in the Holy Roman Empire to choose whether their territories would follow Catholicism or Lutheranism. People living in each territory were expected to follow their ruler’s religion or move elsewhere. This agreement temporarily reduced religious tensions, but it did not recognize other Protestant groups, such as Calvinists.

How did John Calvin’s belief in predestination differ from traditional Catholic teachings about salvation?

John Calvin believed in predestination, the idea that God had already chosen who would be saved and who would be condemned. Traditional Catholic teachings emphasized that salvation involved God’s grace, faith, and good works. Calvin’s belief challenged the Catholic Church’s teachings by arguing that human actions could not change God’s decision about salvation.

Why did Henry VIII establish the Anglican Church, and how did the Act of Supremacy strengthen royal authority?

Henry VIII established the Anglican Church because the Catholic Church refused to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon. In 1534, he passed the Act of Supremacy, declaring himself the Supreme Head of the Church of England. This separated England from the authority of the Pope and strengthened Henry’s political power by giving him control over both the government and the church.

How did the Council of Trent and the Jesuits attempt to strengthen Catholicism during the Counter-Reformation?

The Council of Trent strengthened Catholicism by reaffirming Catholic beliefs, correcting abuses within the Church, and improving the education of priests. The Jesuits helped spread Catholicism through education, missionary work, and converting people to Catholicism. Together, these efforts helped the Catholic Church respond to Protestantism and strengthen its influence during the Counter-Reformation.