ans 206 practical 2

What does blood consist of?

cell and cell-like formed elements that are suspended in a fluid called plasma

These cells include: Erythrocytes, Leukocytes, and Platelets

Typical blood volume given as a percentage of body weight

7-9%

What percentage of the blood volume is found in the pulmonary circuit and what percentage is found in the systemic circulation?

20% in the pulmonary circuit and

80% in the systemic circulation.

hematocrit (AKA packed cell volume)

Portion of blood that consist of red blood cells

How is hematocrit measured?

a blood sample is centrifuged in a tube and the red blood cells will pack at the bottom of the tube.

Why is blood red?

It gets its color from the hemoglobin that is present on erythrocytes

Why is plasma yellow?

Due to the presence of bilirubin (A breakdown product of hemoglobin)

pH of blood

7.4

Formed elements of blood

leukocytes, erythrocytes, and platelets

Two categories of leukocytes

Granulocytes and agranulocytes

What are granulocytes?

Eosinophils, neutrophils and basophils

What are agranulocytes?

Lymphocytes and monocytes

What are erythrocytes? What does their anatomy allow them to do?

Buy concave discs with no nuclei (Small, 5-7 Micrometers)

The by concave disc and lack of nucleus, allows them to carry more hemoglobin and provide surface area for gaseous exchange

What is hemoglobin? What is it made up of?

A major protein that consists of four amino acid chains held together the

four amino acid chains make up the globin and each amino acid group has heme group that contains Iron

how does hemoglobin function in the transport of oxygen?

Oxygen binds to the iron found in the heme Group, Which leads to oxyhemoglobin

This is the process of oxygenation

How does hemoglobin play a role in carbon dioxide transport?

Carbon dioxide binds to a different site than oxygen it binds to the alpha amino group of the peptide chain

This is called carbaminohemoglobin

What is the condition known as methemoglobin? What animal is the seen in?

A condition related to hemoglobin where the hemoglobin is unstable to transport oxygen because the iron is in an incorrect state (Ferric rather than Ferrous)

This is seen when cattle consume grass that has been heavily fertilized (Nitrate poisoning)

What is the condition known as Carboxyhemoglobin?

It is when carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin hemoglobin has a much greater affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen. Since the hemoglobin can then not carry any oxygen, the animal will suffocate

What is erythropoiesis? What is it regulated by?

Erythrocyte production

It is regulated by a hormone called erythropoietin, which is released from the cells of kidneys in response to reduce oxygen delivery

How does erythropoietin work?

Erythropoietin axon cells in the bone marrow to increase the production of red blood cells

It is not immediate and requires a few days

Mature erythrocytes must be produced from stimulated stem cells before they can be released from the bone marrow

How long do red blood cell circulate for what happens when they become old?

They circulate for 3 to 4 months after being released from bone marrow

Macrophages found in the liver and spleen remove and recycle old red blood cells

How is jaundice related to erythrocytes?

It is a condition associated with the yellowing of skin, mucous membranes and scleras

Due to the accumulation of bilirubin

• Bilirubin Accumulates due to liver damage occlusion of the bile ducts, Or by an increase rate of erythrocyte destruction.

What is hemolysis and how does it relate to erythrocytes?

breakdown of erythrocytes and release of hemoglobin. This can be caused by bacterial toxins, snake venoms, blood parasites, and hypotonic solutions.

Hemagglutination

the clumping of red blood cells; will occur with improper blood transfusions

Anemia

results when the number of functional red blood cells or quantity of hemoglobin per unit of blood is below normal. Can be due to deficient blood formation, diseases of the bone marrow, kidney disease with inadequate production of erythropoietin, poor nutrition. Can also result from the destruction of red blood cells due to hemorrhage or parasites.

Hemoconcentration

decrease in the fluid component of blood, can be caused by an excessively high red blood cell count, can also be due to inadequate water intake or excessive loss of fluid from the body (example, vomiting or diarrhea).

Platelets

AKA thrombocytes

smallest of the formed elements

They are fragments of megakaryocytes (large cells that are formed and reside in bone marrow)

In circulation they appear to be oval disks; however, on blood smears they look like star-shaped fragments.

Gap

Red top tubes

collect serum

they contain either no additive or silica, this means the blood will clot. 

Tiger top/SST tubes

collect serum, the blood will clot in these as well but they do have an additive that allows the blood to separate in the centrifuge.

SST tubes have a clot activator and a gel for serum separation.

Blue top tube

collect plasma and contain the additive citrate.

Green top

collect plasma and contain the additive lithium or sodium heparin.

Gray top

collect plasma and contain the additive sodium fluoride or potassium oxalate.

Purple top

collect plasma and contain 3 different additives.

The three additives are EDTA, K2 EDTA, and K3 EDTA.

Hemostasis

1. constriction of the smooth muscle of the injured vessel to reduce the opening

2. formation of a platelet plug to occlude the opening

3. clot formation

pericardium

membranous sac that surrounds the heart

Layers:

• fibrous

• Parietal

• Visceral

Where do major blood vessels enter and exit the heart?

At the base (top)

What is the bottom of the heart referred to as?

Apex

What part of the heart makes up the apex?

Left ventricle makes up the Apex of the heart as it is the largest chamber

What are the Chambers of the heart?

Atria & ventricles

Each side of the heart has one atrium and one ventricle, and they are separated by the inter ventricular septum

What bone is drawn in the heart and what animal has it?

Cattle have a bone in their heart called os cordis

What are the atria? Describe their anatomy

Receiving chambers

each atrium has a protruding Oracle, a small air life projection to increase the volume of blood blood the

Have thin walls

How does blood enter the right atrium?

Blood enters the right atrium from both the superior and inferior vena cava And the coronary sinus

How does blood enter the left atrium?

Pulmonary veins

What are the ventricles? What is their anatomy?

Discharging chambers

Thick muscular walls, especially in the left ventricle

Ventricular walls are marked by papillary muscles

How does the right ventricle receive blood And what does it pump it into?

Receives blood from right atrium and pumps it into pulmonary trunk

How old is the left ventricle receive blood and what does it pump it into?

Receives blood from the left atrium and pumps blood into the aorta

What is the septum and what does it do?

It is solid and wall-like

Separates the right from the left side

Prevents blood from one side of the heart from mixing with blood from the other side

Major blood vessels that return blood to the heart

Superior vena cava, Inferior vena cava, Coronary sinus, And right and left pulmonary veins

Superior vena cava

Blood from the head and front legs (Above the diaphragm)

Inferior vena cava

Blood from below the diaphragm and hind legs

Coronary sinus

Blood from the heart muscle (myocardium)

Right and left pulmonary veins

Blood from the right and left lungs, respectively

Major blood vessels that take blood away from the heart

Pulmonary trunk

ascending aorta

Pulmonary trunk anatomy

Splits into the right and left pulmonary arteries to go to the right and left lungs, respectively

Ascending aorta anatomy

Three vessels that branch off the aortic arch:

• Brachiocephalic

• Common carotid

• Subclavian arteries

What do arteries generally do?

Carry oxygenated blood

What do veins generally do?

Carry deoxygenated blood

What are the exceptions to arteries carrying oxygenated blood and veins carrying deoxygenated blood?

The pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs from the heart

Pulmonary vein carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart