psychology Core studies Section A

Aim of loftus and palmers study

To investigate the effect of leading questions on memory recall in eyewitness testimony.

Background of loftus and Palmer

understanding how memory can be influenced by external factors, particularly when witnessing an event. Marshall found that people had difficulty estimating the speed of cars even if they knew that they would be asked about it.

Research Method in L&P

Lab Experiment

Design in L&P

Independent measures design

Verbs used in exp 1 in L and P

Smashed, hit, collided, bumped, Contacted

How many participants are in each experiment in Loftus and Palmers Study

Experiment 1: 45 students

Experiment 2 . 150 Students

Controls in Loftus and Palmers study

The same 7 films were shown

identical questions other than critical question

After each film, participants given questionare

Results for experiment 1 of Loftus

smashed- 40.5 mph

Contacted - 31.8 mph

Conclusion from Experiment 1 Of Loftus

-Results could be due to distorted memory by verbal label used to characterise the intensity of the crash in leading question

Variables in Experiment 2 for Loftus

IV: smashed, hit and control

DV: estimate of speed, recollection of broken glass

Results in Experiment 2 for Loftus

Smashed- 16/50

Hit- 7/50

Control- 6/50

Conclusion for Experiment 2 for Loftus

The first information obtained from perceiving an event, the second is information gotten from after the event and overtime the two sources may integrate in a way that they're unable to tell which source the informations from

Background for Grants study

Godden and Baddeley- asked to listen to 40 unrelated words either on the beach, or under water / then they were tested in the same (matching) or different (mismatching) conditions

Method of Grants study

Lab Experiment

Design for Grants Study

Independent measures

Variables in Grants study

IV: silent / noisy conditions & matching / mismatching

DV: recall on multiple Choice and Short answer questions.

Sample and sampling method for Grants Study

39 participants aged 17-56 (17 female, 23 male)

opportunity Sampling by 8 members of psychology class randomly assigned to conditions

Background noise in grants study

university cafe with occasional distinct words/phrases, general conversation, sounds of movement of chairs and dishes etc

What was the article on in grants study

Article on Psychoimmunology

Controls in Grants study

 A break of 2 minutes between end of study the test to minimise recall from short-term memory.

Results of Grants study

Short Answer: Silent/Silent- 6.7, Noisy/Silent- 4.6

Multiple Choice: matching-14.3, mismatching- 12.7

Conclusions for grants study

context affects retrieval in both SAQ and MCQ tests students should study in quiet surroundings, as exams are typically held in silence. ​

Study and testing in the same environment leads to enhanced performance. ​

Background for Morays study

Cherrys cocktail party phenomenon using dichotic listening.

Cherry found that those who shadowed a message in one ear, were unaware of the content of the message in the other ear

Aim for Morays Study

 Exp 1. To investigate the amount of information P’s could recognise from a rejected message​

Exp 2. To investigate the effect of hearing one’s own name in the rejected message​

Exp 3. To investigate the effects of instructions to identify a specific target in the rejected message​

Sample in morays study

Exp 2- 12

Exp 3- 28

method in moray

Lab Experiment

design in moray

Exp 1- Repeated Measures

Exp 2- Repeated Measures

Exp 3- Independent Measures

summary of procedure in exp 1 morays study

A word list was repeated 35 times in the rejected (unattended) ear while participants shadowed a passage. Afterward, participants completed a recall test followed by a recognition test containing control words.

7 from the shadowed passage​, 7 from the rejected passage ​,7 from neither passage​

variables in experiment 2 of morays study

IV: Whether the instruction in the rejected message was affective (the participant's name) or non-affective (not their name).

DV: The number of instructions recalled by the participants

summary of procedure in experiment 2 of morays study

Participants shadowed ten short passages of light fiction.

Rejected messages were played in the other ear which were not attended to, Moray wanted to find out of these messages would be heard if it included their name.​

Results of Experiment 2 in Morays study

Affective instructions: 20/39

Non-affective instructions: 4/36

Variables in Experiment 3 in morays study

IV: Instructions given before shadowing (one group told they would be asked questions about the content of the rejected message vs. one group told to remember all the digits they could hear).

DV: The number of digits correctly recalled from the rejected message.

Conclusion for morays study

Moray believes when we focus our attention on one message we create an attentional block on the rejected message.​

When we direct our attention to a message from one ear and reject a message from the other ear, almost none of the verbal content of the rejected message is able to get through this block.

Background of simon and chabris

Change blindness is a perceptual phenomenon that occurs when a change in a visual stimulus is introduced and the observer does not notice it.

method in simon and chabris

Lab Experiment

design in simon and chabris

Independent Measures

Sample and Sampling Techniques in Simon and Chabris study

192 participants

Each participant either volunteered to participate without compensation, received a large candy bar for participating, or was paid a single fee for participating ( Self Selected)

Variables in simon and chabris study

IV: white / black team

umbrella woman / gorilla

Easy / Hard Task -told to keep either a silent mental count of the total number of passes made by the attended team (Easy condition) or separate silent mental counts of the number of bounce passes and aerial passes made by the attended team

Opaque / Transparent Task

DV: number of participants that noticed unexpected event

Controls in Simon and Chabris Study

All experimenters trained to ensure that they were conducting the experiment in the same way

Written standardised instructions were given so all were asked the same questions and given same instructions​

All participants tested individually ​

All watched either the transparent or the opaque video - duration of unexpected event/whole video was the same ​​

Four video tapes, each 75 seconds in duration were created. Each tape showed two teams of three players

After 44-48 seconds of action either of two unexpected events occurred

Results in Simon and Chabris study

54% noticed the unexpected event

noticed: opaque condition (67%) than the transparent condition (42%)

noticed: easy (64%) than the hard (45%) condition

Conclusions in simon and chabris study

Individuals fail to notice an ongoing and highly salient but unexpected event if they are engaged in a primary monitoring task

The level of inattentional blindness depends on the difficulty of the primary task.​

Individuals are more likely to notice unexpected events if these events are visually similar to the events they are paying attention to

Background for Banduras Study

Skinner (1938) introduced the idea of reinforcement to the Law of Effect. Operant conditioning is learning due to the consequences of behaviour, through positive reinforcement (rewards) or negative reinforcement (when you take something pleasant away). ​

Social learning theory : People observe a model carrying out a behaviour, Information about the behaviour is stored in memory​ and In a similar situation behaviour may be imitated.​ The behaviour may be reinforced by it’s consequences​​

Variables in Bandura Study

IV : Aggressive / Non-Aggressive

Gender of Child

Gender of model

DV : imitative physical / verbal aggressive behaviour

non imitative aggressive behaviour

non aggressive behaviour

partially imitated aggression

sample and sampling technique in banduras study

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)​

36 boys & 36 girls​ ages 37 months - 69 months​

opportunity sampling

controls in banduras study

Matched participants – matched on Pre-existing levels of aggression using 5 point scale

Ensuring all P’s have a level of aggression before being observed by the researcher.​

Control group.​

Double blind control.

Results in Banduras study

Boys in the aggressive model condition showed more aggressive responses if the model was male (mean average of 22.0) in comparison to if the model was female (mean average 12.4)

Girls in the aggressive model condition showed more imitative physical aggressive responses if the model was male (mean average of7.2), in comparison to if the model was female (mean average 5.5)

Children in the aggressive model condition made more aggressive response (the mean aggression score being 13.7), than children in the non-aggressive model condition (mean aggression score 6.7)

Conclusions in Banduras study

Observation and imitation may be important influences on behaviour, new behaviour may be learned this way without conditioning

Male models appear to have a greater influence on children’s behaviour

Background for Chaneys study

medical adherence in children especially with asthma has be seen as problematic.

Only 30% to 70% compliance with the regular administration of asthmatic medication. ​

Watt et al proposed that making the inhalers a more positive experience would improve medical adherence in young asthmatics.

​Skinner

Method for Chaneys study

Field experiment

Design in chaneys study

Repeated Measures Design

Variables in Chaneys study

IV: Children used Breath-a-Tech

Children used funhaler

DV: The amount of adherence

Sample and sampling technique in Chaneys study

32 children, 22 males and 10 females aged 1.5-6 years from Australia (7 clinics)

Random Sampling Technique

Results in Chaneys study

59% used breath-a-tech day before

81% used funhaler day before

22/30 used funhaler successfully

3/30 breath-a-tech using successfully

68% of Children reported pleasure when using funnaler

Conclusion in Chaneys study

lmproved adherence, combined with satisfactory delivery characteristics, suggest that the Funhaler may be useful for management of young asthmatics. ​

background theories for Kohlberg Study

Freud-psychodynamic theory

Skinners-behaviourist theory

Piagets-cognitive theory

Theories explained in background of kohlbergs study

Freud-believed that behaviour can be explained through forces of the mind ; much of which is in the unconscious

Skinner- Moral development is shaped by our environment (external factors).

Piaget-moral reasoning develops through childhood and is completed by adolescence and young peoples morality is affected by authority

Three levels of moral development in kohlbergs Study

Pre Conventional

Conventional

Post conventional

Six Stages of moral development in Kohlbergs Study

• Punishment and Obedience Orientation

• Instrumental relavist Orientation

• Good boy Good girl Orientation

• Law and Order Orientation

• Social Contract Orientation

• Universal Principle Orientation

Sample in Kohlbergs study

75 American Boys from Canada, Taiwan, UK, Mexico and Turkey from ages 10-16 to 22-28 with three year intervals (cross cultural and cross sectional)

Controls in Kohlberg study

45 minutes long

9 dilemmas

Individual interviews

Results in kohlbergs study

Taiwanese boys aged 10-13 tended to give 'classic' Stage-2 responses.

Participants progressed through the stages one at a time and always in the same order.

A child at an earlier stage of development tends to move forward when confronted with the views of a child one stage further along

middle class children were found to be more advanced in moral judgement than matched lower class children.

No important differences were found in the development of moral thinking amongst religion

Conclusions in kohlbergs study

individuals go through the stages one at a time and they are in a fixed order, but some Individuals may not reach the final stage.

He also concluded that the order of stages is universal across all cultures.

middle-class children move more quickly and further through the stages compared to working-class children. This could be because of education. School children may be reminded of the importance of virtues, are able to practice good habits

Background for lees study

Freud- The super ego is morality principle , ID ego and superego

Piaget- proposed that we move through specific stages in our cognitive development linearly

Aim for lees study

To compare cross-cultural moral evaluations of lying and truth telling in situations involving pro social and antisocial behaviours in both collectivist and individualistic societies.

Method used for lees study

cross-cultural

cross-sectional

lab experiment & quasi experiment

independent measures design-either in physical or social condition

repeated measure design-given both prosocial and anti social stories

Sample of lees study

120 Chinese children of ages 7, 9 and 11

108 Canadian children of age 7, 9 and 11

Variables in lees study

IV- social story(involving a character whos actions may affect other people) Or physical story(involving objects)

Prosocial(child doing a good deed) Or antisocial(child carrying out a bad deed)

Lying or truth telling

DV- Rating given to story of characters deed

Rating given to what character said

controls used in lees study

children randomly assigned to prosocial or anti social conditions

a randomised table was used to determine order of stories to control for order effects

counterbalancing- half of the participants in each condition were read stories in a predetermined order and other, the opposite predetermined order

each story accompanied by picture so child can see what was happening

Results in Lees study

Both groups rated lying in antisocial situations negatively and truth telling positively

Chinese and Canadian children differed in their evaluations of lying and truth telling in prosocial situations

chinese children rated lying in prosocial situations significantly more positively than canadian (even more significant in older age groups in chinese children)