PSYC 332: Intro to Personality Midterm

HEXACO

a six-factor theory of personality psychology developed by Canadian psychologists

• It builds upon the famous Big Five (Five-Factor Model) by re-arranging two existing traits and introducing a major new dimension: Honesty-Humility

Honesty-Humility (H): Measures sincerity, fairness, greed-avoidance, and modesty (how genuine and unselfish a person is)

Emotionality (E): Measures fearfulness, anxiety, dependence, and sentimentality (how much a person seeks safety and emotional bonding)

eXtraversion (X): Measures social self-esteem, social boldness, sociability, and liveliness (how much energy a person draws from social life)

Agreeableness (A): Measures forgivingness, gentleness, flexibility, and patience (how tolerant and patient a person is toward others)

Conscientiousness (C): Measures organization, diligence, perfectionism, and prudence (how disciplined and goal-oriented a person is).

Openness to Experience (O): Measures aesthetic appreciation, inquisitiveness, creativity, and unconventionality (how open a person is to new ideas and experiences)

NEO-PI

standardized psychological tests designed to measure the Five-Factor Model (FFM), commonly known as the "Big Five" personality traits

The Facets: Each of the 5 domains is broken down into 6 narrower facets (e.g., Extraversion is split into Warmth, Gregariousness, Assertiveness, Activity, Excitement-Seeking, and Positive Emotions). This gives a granular profile—meaning two people can both score "high" in Extraversion, yet one might be high in Assertiveness while the other is high in Excitement-Seeking.

Big Five

OCEAN:

• Openness to Experience:

  • Involves creativity, curiosity, and an appreciation for art and new adventures.

  • High scores mean you love learning and abstract ideas. Low scores mean you prefer routine and familiar things.

• Conscientiousness:

  • Involves self-discipline, organization, and goal-directed behavior.

  • High scores mean you plan ahead and finish tasks reliably. Low scores mean you act more impulsively and dislike strict schedules

• Extraversion:

  • Involves sociability, talkativeness, and drawing energy from other people.

  • High scores mean you are outgoing and like being the center of attention. Low scores mean you are an introvert who needs quiet alone time

• Agreeableness:

  • Involves kindness, empathy, trust, and a desire for social harmony.

  • High scores mean you enjoy helping others. Low scores mean you are more competitive, skeptical, or indifferent to other people's problems

• Neuroticism:

  • Involves emotional instability and how you react to stress or negative feelings.

  • High scores mean you are prone to mood swings and anxiety. Low scores mean you are emotionally stable and stay relaxed under pressure.

VIA Character Strengths

the VIA framework explores "what is right with people" by identifying core positive traits that support well-being, resilience, and meaningful living.

• The model organizes 24 character strengths under six universal virtues. Every person possesses all 24 strengths, but in a unique order and degree (forming a personal profile of "signature strengths").

1. Wisdom and Knowledge

2. Courage

3. Humanity

4. Justice

5. Temperance

6. Transcendence (e.g., Appreciation of Beauty and Excellence: Noticing and appreciating beauty, excellence, and/or skilled performance in various domains of life.

• Gratitude: Being aware of and thankful for the good things that happen.

• Hope: Expecting the best in the future and working to achieve it.

• Humor: Liking to laugh and tease; bringing smiles to other people.

• Spirituality: Having coherent beliefs about the higher purpose and meaning of the universe)

DSM-5 Alternative Model

a hybrid dimensional-categorical framework that assesses personality pathology based on severity and specific maladaptive traits, rather than rigid "all-or-nothing" diagnostic labels

Criterion A: Impairments in Personality Functioning (Severity)

This measures how severely a person struggles with basic day-to-day self and interpersonal tasks using the Level of Personality Functioning Scale (LPFS), rated from 0 (little/no impairment) to 4 (extreme impairment). A person generally needs at least a moderate (level 2) impairment to qualify for a personality disorder.

Criterion B: Pathological Personality Traits (Style)

If a person meets Criterion A, the clinician evaluates which specific maladaptive traits define their personality style. These are grouped into 5 broad trait domains containing 25 specific facets, often measured via the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5)

Free-Trait Theory

people have fixed, inborn personality traits (biogenic sources like introversion or extraversion), but they can temporarily and strategically act "out of character" (free traits) to pursue things that matter deeply to them

Self-monitoring

a trait that measures how much a person observes and regulates their expressive behavior, emotions, and self-presentation in response to social situations and external cues

High Self-Monitors vs. Low Self-Monitors

• high SM: Act like "social chameleons" who adapt easily to fit what a specific situation or audience demands.

• Low Self-Monitors: Act consistently across different settings based on their own inner beliefs, values, and feelings.

Rank-order stability

the consistency of an individual's relative position or ordering compared to others within a group over time

Relative Position: If you measure a group of people on a personality trait (such as extraversion) at two different points in time, rank-order stability evaluates whether the "who is highest" and "who is lowest" ordering stays the same. For example, if you are more conscientious than your peers at age 20, you will likely still be more conscientious than them at age 40

Normative change

how personality traits shift on average for most people in a population as they age through the lifespan.

Cumulative continuity

the principle that personality traits become more stable and consistent in rank-order as people grow older.

Rank-order consistency means that an individual's relative standing on a personality trait compared to their peers stays largely the same over time (for example, the most extraverted person in a high school class is still likely to be among the most extraverted people in that class at age 50)

Eusociality

the highest level of social organization, traditionally characterized by a reproductive division of labor, overlapping generations, and cooperative care of the young.

• Rather than viewing humans as purely self-interested individuals, personality psychologists use the framework of eusociality to explain how specific human traits evolved to serve the collective group.

• The Evolutionary Basis of Altruism: Eusociality explains why humans naturally possess traits like empathy, guilt, and heroism. Under evolutionary pressures, self-sacrificial behaviors (like defending a community or sharing resources) helped our ancestors survive by enhancing the collective fitness of the group

• The Division of Labor & Personality Diversity: In social insects, a rigid caste system dictates who reproduces and who works. In human personality psychology, this translates to a behavioral division of labor. Instead of physical castes, humans have a wide variation in personality traits (e.g., high Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, or Extraversion). This diversity allows different individuals to naturally excel at specialized group roles—such as nurturers, protectors, or innovators—benefiting the overall society.

Ego-syntonic / Ego-dystonic

Ego-syntonic and ego-dystonic are psychoanalytic terms (coined by Sigmund Freud) that describe how a person experiences their thoughts, feelings, impulses, and behaviors in relation to their self-image and values.

• Ego-Syntonic

  • Definition: The behavior, thought, or trait is in harmony or consistent with the person's ego, self-image, and core values. The individual feels the trait is "who I am" and typically does not experience it as a problem.

  • Impact on Insight: Low insight; the person often blames others or external circumstances for any friction rather than recognizing their own behavior as flawed

  • (e.g., narcissistic personality disorder, or obsessive compulsive personality disorder)

• Ego-Dystonic (Ego-Alien)

  • Definition: The behavior, thought, or impulse is in conflict or out of alignment with the person's self-image and values. It feels foreign, unwanted, and distressing ("this doesn't feel like me")

  • Impact on Insight: Higher insight; the person recognizes that something is wrong and is typically much more motivated to seek help or relief

  • (e.g., OCD, or Depression)

Antagonism

a broad trait domain characterized by self-centered, hostile, manipulative, and argumentative behaviors that put a person at odds with others.

Low Agreeableness: In the Big Five personality model, antagonism represents the low pole of Agreeableness.

Pathological Antagonism: In clinical settings (such as the DSM-5 Alternative Model for Personality Disorders), it goes beyond simple rudeness and acts as a core feature of dark or antisocial patterns.

The A-B-C-D Model: Researchers describe pathological antagonism through four keys: Affect (lack of empathy or hidden disdain), Behavior (manipulation, lying, or harm), Cognition (suspicious or paranoid worldviews), and a core Dark disposition

Gregariousness

a specific sub-trait or facet of Extraversion in the Big Five Personality Model that measures how much a person enjoys and actively seeks out the company of groups, crowds, and social gatherings.

• Appetite for Crowds: High-gregariousness individuals feel energized and drawn to full rooms, parties, busy workplaces, and social events.

• Disliked Solitude: They often feel restless, bored, or drained when forced to spend extended periods alone.

• Distinct from Warmth: Gregariousness measures a preference for being around people, which is separate from being empathetic, affectionate, or assertive (which are other distinct facets of Extraversion)

• High Gregariousness: Thrives in noisy or crowded environments, seeks out group activities, and easily initiates social contact.

• Low Gregariousness: Prefers working alone, spending time in small groups, or engaging in one-on-one conversations rather than large crowds.

Altruism

an unselfish concern and action for the well-being of others, performed without the expectation of an external reward, recognition, or personal gain.

• closely tied to traits like Agreeableness (one of the Big Five personality factors), empathy, and moral development. Rather than just a single isolated behavior, it is viewed as an individual's disposition to prioritize the welfare of others over their own immediate self-interest

Examples:

Kin Altruism (Genetic): Helping family members or genetic relatives to ensure the survival of shared genetic traits, even at a personal cost.

• Example: A parent running into a smoky room to pull their child to safety.

Reciprocal Altruism: Helping someone with the implicit or delayed expectation that the favor will be returned in the future, building social trust.

• Example: Coworkers taking turns covering each other's shifts when personal emergencies arise

Deliberation

• a specific facet of Conscientiousness

• the tendency to think things through carefully, weigh options, and consider consequences before taking action or making a decision. Individuals high in deliberation are cautious, planful, and deliberate, whereas those low in deliberation tend to be impulsive, spontaneous, and hasty.

• High Deliberation: Cautious, methodical, reflective, and risk-averse. These individuals rarely act on a whim and prefer to have a clear roadmap.

• Low Deliberation: Impulsive, spontaneous, impatient, and action-oriented. These individuals prefer to jump right into situations and figure things out as they go.

Tender-mindedness

Tender-mindedness is a sub-facet of the Agreeableness trait in the Big Five personality model, defined as a tendency to be guided by sympathy, soft-heartedness, humanism, and a primary focus on the human factor in social and moral decisions.

• High Empathy & Sympathy: Heavily influenced by how others feel; quick to share in or be moved by another person's distress.

• Human-Centric Focus: Prioritizes people's emotional well-being and welfare over cold efficiency, rigid rules, or abstract metrics.

• Idealism & Optimism: Tends to view situations through a hopeful, compassionate lens, sometimes favoring spiritual or harmonious outcomes

Vulnerability

the conscious or unconscious willingness to face emotional exposure, risk, and uncertainty, or a psychological susceptibility to negative emotional outcomes (such as loneliness, stress, or rejection)

• Emotional Exposure: Letting down protective "armor" to show true feelings, needs, or flaws instead of hiding behind a tough facade

• Trait Susceptibility: In a clinical or personality sense, vulnerability can also mean an innate predisposition to being easily hurt, overwhelmed, or anxious under stress.

Common Examples of Vulnerability

• Admitting a mistake: Telling a coworker or partner, "I dropped the ball on this project, and I am sorry," rather than making excuses

• Asking for help: Reaching out to a friend to say, "I'm having a really hard time right now and need someone to talk to," instead of isolating

Pathological Personality Domains

pathological personality domains are five broad, maladaptive (harmful) trait categories. They represent extreme or distorted versions of normal personality traits that cause severe distress or impair daily life and relationships

1. Negative Affectivity

2. Detachment

3. Antagonism

4. Disinhibition

5. Psychoticism

Facet (as in personality facets)

a specific, narrower sub-trait that makes up a broader, global personality domain (such as the Big Five)

While a broad trait tells you an overall tendency (like being generally "Extraverted"), its facets break that trait down into distinct, independent behaviors and emotional patterns. For instance, a person can score high in one facet of Extraversion (like liking large parties) while scoring low in another facet (like being assertive)

Maladaptive traits

rigid, unhealthy patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that prevent a person from coping with life’s demands and lead to significant personal distress or social impairment.

• Unlike normal-range personality traits (which help people adapt to different situations), maladaptive traits are inflexible, persist across many contexts, and often interfere with work, relationships, and emotional well-being

• Inflexibility: Using the same rigid reaction even when the situation changes or calls for a different approach.

• Short-Term Relief vs. Long-Term Cost: Offering temporary comfort or anxiety reduction while causing bigger problems later (such as avoidance or emotional outbursts).

• Impaired Functioning: Making it hard to keep a job, maintain healthy relationships, or handle ordinary daily stress

Nonshared environment

(also called an unshared or unique environment) refers to the distinct, individual-specific environmental factors and experiences that are not shared by family members. In personality psychology and behavioral genetics, nonshared environmental influences explain why siblings raised in the same household can develop very different personalities, behaviors, or mental health outcomes, even when they share the same parents and home.

• Major source of variance: Behavioral genetic studies (such as twin and adoption research) show that nonshared environmental effects account for a large portion of the environmental variance in human personality and psychopathology

• Includes random biological and subjective factors: Modern research shows that nonshared influences are not just distinct external events, but can also include random internal biological noise (such as somatic mutations or epigenetic differences) and unique subjective perceptions of the same event

Neurotic cascade

a psychological framework that explains how a high natural tendency toward neuroticism (emotional instability, anxiety, and vulnerability to stress) triggers a chain reaction of negative mental, emotional, and physical events in daily life.

The 5 Steps of the Neurotic Cascade

1. Hyperreactivity: People high in neuroticism have a more sensitive brain system (such as the Behavioral Inhibition System). They overreact intensely to small, everyday friction or neutral events

2. Exposure: Because they perceive more situations as threatening, they actively find themselves in or notice more stressful scenarios.

3. Appraisal: They interpret ambiguous or normal situations in the worst possible light (catastrophizing).

4. Rumination: They repeatedly replay and dwell on the negative event, unable to let it go.

5. Mood Spillover & Exhaustion: The prolonged cycle drains their emotional resilience, leading to chronic negative moods, interpersonal conflict, and physical wear-and-tear on the body.

Free-Trait Theory

people have fixed, inborn personality traits (such as introversion or extraversion), but can temporarily and strategically act "out of character" to advance personal goals they care deeply about.

Core Concepts

• Fixed (Biogenic) Traits: Inborn genetic and biological tendencies that shape our baseline preferences and reactions

• Free Traits: Culturally scripted or chosen behaviors that temporarily override fixed traits. For example, an introvert acting as an outgoing, high-energy leader or public speaker.

• Core Personal Projects: The deeply valued goals, values, or commitments (such as a career calling, raising a family, or creative work) that motivate a person to use a free trait.

Cumulative continuity

the principle that personality traits become increasingly stable and consistent in rank order as people age. This means that an individual's relative standing compared to their peers on a specific trait (like extraversion or anxiety) tends to stay the same throughout adulthood.

Key Mechanisms Behind Cumulative Continuity:

• Genetic Factors: Inherited tendencies provide a steady baseline for personality across the lifespan

Normative change

(also called mean-level change) in personality psychology refers to the average shifts or trends in personality traits that most people experience as they age and move through life stages.

• Unlike individual or rank-order changes—which look at whether a person stays higher or lower relative to their peers—normative change looks at how the entire population or age group changes on average over time. A primary driver of this is the Maturity Principle, which shows that people generally become more psychologically mature as they grow older

Rank-order stability

Rank-order stability is the consistency of an individual's relative position or ordering compared to other people in a group over time.

• Relative Position: If you measure a group of people on a trait—such as extraversion or conscientiousness—rank-order stability asks whether the person who scored the highest remains the highest, and the person who scored the lowest remains the lowest at a later time

• Independence from Mean-Level Change: Rank-order stability can remain high even if the entire group changes together in absolute terms. For example, an entire population might become more emotionally stable or conscientious as they age (a mean-level change), yet individuals will generally keep their same relative standing compared to one another

• Life Span Trends: Research (such as the cumulative continuity principle) shows that rank-order stability tends to be lower in childhood, increases across adolescence and young adulthood, and peaks around middle age before often leveling off or slightly declining in old age

Extraversion

an orientation toward the outer world, sociability, high energy, and gaining psychological energy through social interaction and external stimulation.

• Sociability & Gregariousness: Enjoying the company of others, actively seeking out group gatherings, and making friends easily.

• Assertiveness: Taking charge, speaking up without hesitation, influencing people, and naturally stepping into leadership roles.

• Activity & High Energy: Maintaining a fast-paced life, keeping busy, and moving with high physical tempo.

• Excitement-Seeking: Craving novelty, thrills, bright environments, and external stimulation.

• Positive Emotions: Frequently experiencing joy, enthusiasm, optimism, and laughing often.

Introversion

a core dimension characterized by a preference for the inner life of the mind, independent reflection, and low-stimulation environments rather than the outer world of large social groups

• Energy Source: Introverts recharge and regain mental energy through solitude or quiet reflection, whereas social events tend to drain them

• The Continuum: Introversion sits on a spectrum opposite extroversion. Most people fall somewhere in the middle rather than being strictly one or the other

• Depth Over Breadth: Introverts generally prefer a small, tight-knit circle of close friends and deep, meaningful conversations over small talk or large crowds

• Not Shyness: Introversion is a distinct personality style, not a social phobia or shyness. Shy people feel fear or anxiety around others, while introverts can socialize easily simply by choice preferring calm settings

Neuroticism

a person's tendency to experience negative emotions such as anxiety, sadness, anger, and self-doubt.

people with high neuroticism are emotionally reactive and easily stressed by minor problems, while people with low neuroticism (high emotional stability) tend to be calm, even-tempered, and resilient.

Core Characteristics of High Neuroticism

• Chronic Worrying: Constantly stressing over potential problems in health, work, or relationships.

• Emotional Volatility: Experiencing rapid mood swings or feeling easily irritated and overwhelmed.

• Threat Sensitivity: Interpreting neutral or everyday situations as dangerous, hostile, or deeply concerning.

• Self-Consciousness: Being overly sensitive to criticism, shyness, or feelings of inadequacy and guilt

Agreeableness

measures how much you care about getting along with other people, showing kindness, and keeping social harmony

High Agreeableness

• Key Traits: Empathetic, trusting, cooperative, polite, modest, and altruistic (selfless)

• In relationships: Deferring to a friend’s restaurant choice or letting go of a minor argument just to keep the peace.

• In daily life: Offering your seat to someone on the bus, volunteering at a local food bank, or spending time comforting a coworker who had a bad day

Conscientiousness

reflects a person’s tendency toward responsibility, organization, hard work, self-control, and goal-direction.

People who score high in conscientiousness tend to be:

• Organized and structured: They keep tidy spaces, manage calendars, and follow routines.

• Disciplined and reliable: They finish tasks promptly, honor commitments, and follow rules.

• Goal- and achievement-oriented: They set short- and long-term targets and work steadily to reach them.

• Cautious and deliberative: They weigh pros and cons and consider consequences before acting

People who score low in conscientiousness tend to be:

• Spontaneous and flexible: They prefer freedom over rigid schedules and strict order.

• Procrastination-prone: They may delay tasks, especially if they feel difficult or tedious.

• Casual or impulsive: They focus more on immediate fun or convenience rather than long-term planning

Openness

a person's receptivity to new ideas, unconventional values, and novel experiences.

High Openness: Creative, curious, imaginative, abstract-thinking, and open to diverse perspectives. They enjoy theorizing, exploring art, and adapting to change

Low Openness: Practical, grounded, routine-oriented, traditional, and cautious about change. They prefer tried-and-tested methods and can come across as closed-minded

Personality disorder (and its key characteristics)

a long-standing, rigid, and inflexible pattern of thinking, feeling, behaving, and relating to others that significantly deviates from cultural expectations and causes severe distress or functional impairment

• Enduring and Pervasive: These patterns begin by late adolescence or early adulthood and show up across many different areas of life, such as work, school, and relationships

• Ego-Syntonic: Many people with a personality disorder feel that their thoughts and behaviors are natural and correct ("ego-syntonic"), often blaming external circumstances or other people for their problems rather than recognizing their own patterns

• Inflexibility: Individuals struggle to adapt their responses to changing social or emotional situations, leading to chronic interpersonal conflict.

Ex:

Schizoid Personality Disorder: A strong preference for being alone, a lack of interest in close relationships, and a very limited range of emotional expression

• Antisocial Personality Disorder: A long-term pattern of violating the rights of others, disregarding rules, and lacking remorse or guilt.

• Borderline Personality Disorder: Intense mood swings, an unstable self-image, volatile relationships, and a severe fear of abandonment.

Self-regulation

the process by which individuals monitor and control their attention, thoughts, emotions, and behaviors to achieve long-term goals and adapt to changing environments.

People regulate four main areas of internal and external response:

• Concentrating on a task or blocking out unwanted distractions.

• Emotions: Calming down when angry or cheering oneself up when sad.

• Impulses: Resisting immediate temptations, such as unhealthy foods or smoking.

• Task Performance: Forcing oneself to keep working through fatigue or boredom.

Self-regulation primarily falls under the Big Five personality trait of Conscientiousness

Attachment

the deep emotional bond that forms between an infant and a primary caregiver, which acts as a survival system and shapes how a person experiences relationships throughout their life.

• Secure Attachment

• Anxious (Anxious-Preoccupied / Anxious-Resistant) Attachment

• Avoidant (Dismissive-Avoidant) Attachment

• Disorganized (Fearful-Avoidant) Attachment

Assertiveness

the ability to express your thoughts, feelings, needs, and boundaries clearly and respectfully without being passive or aggressive.

• Assertiveness falls under Extraversion (specifically as one of its core sub-components or facets).

Conscience

an individual's internal sense of right and wrong that guides moral behavior, regulates impulses, and prompts feelings of guilt or pride when actions align or conflict with personal and social standards

• Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud): Freud defines conscience as a core component of the superego. It acts as an internal judge or critic that stores the moral values, rules, and taboos absorbed from parents and society, punishing transgressions with guilt

• Developmental and Stage Theories: Theorists like Jean Piaget and Lawrence Kohlberg view the conscience as evolving through stages. Children start with an outer-directed respect for rules (fear of punishment), moving toward an internalized, autonomous set of abstract moral principles in adulthood.

Emotional stability

Emotional stability is an individual's ability to remain calm, resilient, and composed under pressure, and it falls under the Neuroticism trait in the Big Five personality model (often described as the inverse or low end of neuroticism)

Social dominance

refers to Social Dominance Orientation (SDO), a personality trait that measures an individual's preference for group-based inequality and hierarchy

• Definition: SDO captures how much a person wants their own social, racial, or national group to dominate and hold power over lower-status groups

• People high in SDO view society as a "dog-eat-dog" competition where groups naturally rank above or below one another. People low in SDO prefer egalitarian, cooperative systems

Self-criticism

a trait defined by harsh, punitive self-evaluation, continuous self-scrutiny, and negative self-appraisals tied to unreached personal or social standards

• Harsh Internal Dialogue: Individuals maintain a cold, critical, or scolding inner voice that fixates on perceived flaws, mistakes, and inadequacies

• Achievement vs. Connection: People high in this trait often prioritize high achievement and perfectionism over social relationships, driven by a deep fear of failure or rejection

Perfectionism

a multidimensional personality style and vulnerability factor marked by an intense drive for flawlessness, excessively high performance standards, and harsh self-evaluations

According the McAdams, the main function of religion is to promote?

cooperation for the good of the group

How many distinct layers of growth does McAdams postulate for personality?

Three

1. Dispositional Traits (the self as a social actor) — big Five traits

2. the self as motivated agent (personal motives, values, and goals)

3. the self as autobiographical author (life stories)

What are the three layers of personality?

Layer 1: Dispositional Traits

• What it is: General, broad tendencies and behavioral styles (such as the Big Five personality traits like extraversion or neuroticism).

• When it develops: Early childhood (around ages 2 to 3), heavily influenced by genetics and basic temperament

Layer 2: Characteristic Adaptations

• What it is: Specific goals, values, motives, coping strategies, and beliefs that adjust depending on life roles and social demands.

• When it develops: Mid-to-late childhood and into adulthood as people navigate changing environments.

Layer 3: Narrative Identity

• What it is: The internalized, evolving life story you construct about yourself that gives your life unity, meaning, and a sense of purpose.

• When it develops: Adolescence and emerging adulthood, continuing to rewrite itself throughout life

Sigmund Freud’s Three Structures of Personality

• The Id: The primitive, instinctual part operating in the unconscious that drives basic biological needs and seeks immediate pleasure.

• The Ego: The rational, pragmatic component that balances the demands of the id, the real world, and moral standards.

• The Superego: The moral conscience and internal ideals absorbed from parents and society that generate feelings of pride or guilt

Id

(The Impulse): Operates on the pleasure principle. It demands immediate gratification of primal needs and ignores rules or consequences.

Superego

(The Moral Compass): Acts as your conscience and internalized societal rules. It strives for perfection and causes guilt when you do something wrong.

• Example: You tell yourself eating sugar is shameful and weak, and you punish yourself mentally for even looking at the cake

The Ego

(The Mediator): Operates on the reality principle. It tries to satisfy the id's desires in a realistic, socially acceptable way that pleases the superego.

• Example: You decide to buy a single healthy treat or wait until your scheduled cheat day to enjoy a small, paid portion properly.

what are examples of how Id, Ego, and Superego would react in the context of work?

• Id: You want to quit your boring task right now and play a video game on your phone.

• Superego: You believe being lazy makes you a bad, dishonest worker who deserves to fail.

• Ego: You finish the current task and promise yourself a short 10-minute game break once your work is done.

how do the id, ego, and superego influence each other?

through a constant, dynamic push-and-pull struggle inside the mind, with the ego acting as a central mediator balancing the raw impulses of the id against the moral standards of the superego.

According to McAdams, recent social psychological research suggests that gossipe generally promotes _____ in groups?

Cooperation

Who recognized that human beings are designed by evolution to “get along and get ahead"?

Robert Hogan

At what age does antisocial behavior peak at?

17 years old

In the cartoon series peanuts, Lucy and Linus make off siblings because they are at opposite ends of what trait dimension?

Agreeableness

According to McAdams, Effortful control is the temperamental precursor to which Big Five traits?

Conscientiousness and Agreeableness

In a Seinfeld episode, George describes how uncomfortable it is when he is forced to meet friends who he usually meets with separately. Koestner argued that this behavior exemplified?

High Self Monitoring

According to McAdams, what are the correlates of extraversion?

More Daily Social Interaction: Extraverts engage in a higher frequency of social interactions on a day-to-day basis

Greater Popularity: High extraversion correlates with social success, peer acceptance, and popularity

Alcohol Consumption: Research highlighted by McAdams connects higher levels of extraversion to higher rates of social drinking and alcohol consumption

Social Dominance and Leadership: In corporate and interpersonal dynamics, extraversion strongly correlates with status, assertiveness, and taking charge

Effort to Increase Happiness: Extraverts exhibit a prominent tendency to actively expend cognitive and behavioral effort to boost or sustain their own happiness and positive mood

Reward Sensitivity: At a biological level, extraverts demonstrate heightened sensitivity to rewards (and social attention), viewing interpersonal situations as primary arenas for reward fulfillment.

According to McAdams, when in the life cycle does a person first adopt an historical perspective on the self?

Adolescence

According to McAdams, the trait perspective allows us to predict what about individua

How they will feel and behave

Assertiveness is an important facet of which of the big five traits?

Extraversion

According to Koestner, what does the term “overclaiming” refer to?

The tendency of narcissists to respond “yes” when asked “Do you know ----?”, even if the person is made up.

Overclaiming (in the context of narcissism)

the tendency to falsely or exaggeratedly claim familiarity with concepts, historical events, famous people, or scientific terms that do not actually exist

According to McAdams, which is NOT one of the six facets of Extraversion on the Revised NEO Personality Inventory by Costa & McCrae?

Openness to ideas

what are the six facets of Extraversion under Costa & McCrae's model?

• Warmth: Affectionate, friendly, and genuinely interested in forming close, warm relationships with others.

• Gregariousness: Preferring the company of other people and enjoying large crowds or social gatherings.

• Assertiveness: Dominant, forceful, and willing to speak up or take a leadership role in groups.

• Activity: Having a rapid pace, high energy levels, and a preference for a busy, active lifestyle.

• Excitement-Seeking: Craving high levels of stimulation, thrills, adventure, and physical risk.

• Positive Emotions: The tendency to experience joy, happiness, excitement, and optimism.

The Costs and Management of Free Traits (free-trait theory)

• Role Strain and Depletion: Acting out of character requires mental energy and can stress the autonomic nervous system. Prolonged suppression of your natural temperament can lead to burnout

• Restorative Niches: Safe environments or quiet time-outs (like retreating to a quiet room after a social event) where a person can drop the free-trait mask and return to their biological baseline

What are examples of non shared environmental influences?

• Different Peer Groups: Sibling A hangs out with an academic, book-loving circle of friends, while Sibling B joins a competitive sports team, leading to different social reinforcement and habits.

• Differential Parental Treatment: A parent acts warmly and affectionately toward one child or enforces stricter discipline on a first-born child than on a younger sibling.

• Unique School Experiences: One sibling gets an inspiring, confidence-building teacher who fosters a love for math, while the other gets a harsh teacher who induces anxiety

• Idiosyncratic Life Events: One child experiences a severe, isolated trauma, a unique childhood illness, or a specific sports injury that the other sibling completely avoids.

• birth Order Effects: Occupying the role of the oldest, middle, or youngest child creates distinct family dynamics and responsibilities.

• Subjective Interpretation of Shared Events: Even when an event happens to the whole family—such as parental divorce—one child may internalize it as personal rejection while the other sees it as a relief from household tension

How does personality change normatively throughout one’s lifespan?

Increase in Conscientiousness: Young adults generally grow more responsible, organized, and self-disciplined as they take on adult roles like careers, marriage, and parenthood

Increase in Agreeableness: People tend to become warmer, more cooperative, and more empathetic as they age and learn better strategies for social harmony

Decrease in Neuroticism (Emotional Instability): On average, people experience fewer intense negative emotions, anxiety, and mood swings as they move past young adulthood

Shifts in Extraversion and Openness: Traits like social vitality or excitement-seeking (facets of extraversion) and openness to experience often peak in young adulthood and then show gradual mean-level declines later in life

Secure Attachment

Definition: A healthy sense of trust, high self-esteem, and comfort with both emotional intimacy and independence. It develops when caregivers are consistently responsive, warm, and available.

Childhood Example: A toddler cries when their parent leaves the room, actively seeks comfort upon their return, calms down quickly, and then happily goes back to playing

Adult Example: In a romantic relationship, a person feels comfortable communicating their needs, trusts their partner when they spend time apart, and handles conflict openly without panicking that the relationship is ending.

Anxious (Anxious-Preoccupied / Anxious-Resistant) Attachment

Definition: A deep fear of rejection, abandonment, or unworthiness, paired with a constant craving for reassurance and validation from others. It often stems from inconsistent caregiving (sometimes attentive, sometimes neglectful or overwhelmed)

Childhood Example: A child becomes intensely distressed when a parent leaves, and upon their return, alternates between clinging to them and angrily pushing them away

Adult Example: An adult constantly worries that their partner doesn't love them anymore. If their partner takes a few hours to reply to a text message, they feel intensely anxious, send multiple follow-up texts, or demand immediate reassurance

Avoidant (Dismissive-Avoidant) Attachment

Definition: A high degree of self-reliance coupled with an uncomfortable reaction to emotional closeness. Individuals learn to suppress their attachment needs because their early caregivers were emotionally unavailable or rejecting

Childhood Example: A child appears calm and indifferent when their parent leaves the room and ignores or turns away from them when they return, though physiological measurements show they are actually experiencing hidden stress

Adult Example: When a partner tries to get emotionally vulnerable or talks about moving in together, the avoidant individual feels "suffocated," pulls away, prioritizes work or hobbies, or ends the relationship to protect their independence

Disorganized (Fearful-Avoidant) Attachment

• Definition: A chaotic or contradictory style where a person desperately craves love and connection, yet simultaneously fears intimacy and getting hurt. It is frequently linked to childhood trauma, abuse, or frightened/frightening behavior from caregivers.

• Childhood Example: A child approaches a returned parent with a confused or freezing posture—such as looking away while clinging to them—reflecting that the source of safety is also the source of fear.

• Adult Example: An adult enters a relationship and swings wildly between extreme romantic intensity/clinginess and sudden emotional withdrawal or pushing the partner away the moment things feel too close or vulnerable.

what are the seven key traits of antagonism?

• Callousness: Showing little or no concern for the feelings, pain, or problems of others.

• Hostility: Frequent feelings of anger, rage, and irritability, even over minor slights.

• Manipulativeness: Using trickiness, charm, or control to influence people for personal gain.

• Deceitfulness: Dishonesty, embellishment, or fraudulent behavior.

• Grandiosity: Believing one is superior to others, entitled, and deserving of special treatment.

• Suspiciousness: Over-sensitivity or constant expectation of ill-intent from others.

• Attention-seeking: Behaviours designed to make oneself the primary focus or source of admiration

High Deliberation

Cautious, methodical, reflective, and risk-averse. These individuals rarely act on a whim and prefer to have a clear roadmap.

• High Deliberation Example: When offered a new job, a highly deliberate person will not accept immediately. They will map out a pros-and-cons list, research the company's financial health, calculate the exact commute time, and sleep on the decision for a few days.

Low Deliberation

Impulsive, spontaneous, impatient, and action-oriented. These individuals prefer to jump right into situations and figure things out as they go.

Low Deliberation Example: An individual low in deliberation might accept the job on the spot during the initial phone call simply because the title sounds exciting, without researching the benefits or workplace culture.

Reciprocal Altruism

Helping someone with the implicit or delayed expectation that the favor will be returned in the future, building social trust.

• Example: Coworkers taking turns covering each other's shifts when personal emergencies arise

Kin Altruism (Genetic)

Helping family members or genetic relatives to ensure the survival of shared genetic traits, even at a personal cost.

• Example: A parent running into a smoky room to pull their child to safety

Pure (or Moral) Altruism

Helping someone in need completely selflessly, often at high personal risk or cost, and with zero expectation of anything in return.

• Example: Donating a kidney anonymously to a stranger, or Wesley Autrey jumping onto New York subway tracks to shield a stranger from an oncoming train

Group-Based (or Cultural) Altruism:

Acting in ways that benefit a wider community, social group, or cultural tradition.

• Example: Volunteering time at a local community soup kitchen or participating in disaster relief efforts after a flood

High Self-Monitors

individuals who closely monitor their social environments and readily adjust their behavior, emotional expression, and public presentation to fit the expectations of specific situations

• Situational Adaptability: They change how they talk, act, and present themselves depending on who they are with or where they are

• External Focus: They rely on environmental and social cues rather than internal consistency or core personal values to guide their behavior

• Impression Management: They care deeply about how they are perceived and actively work to project a desired image.

• Social and Career Strengths: They often excel in roles requiring networking, persuasion, or public-facing communication (such as politics, sales, acting, public relations, and law)

• Potential Drawdowns: They can sometimes be perceived as insincere, "fake," or emotionally detached, and excessive monitoring can lead to stress or emotional exhaustion

Low Self-Monitors

individuals whose behavior is guided primarily by their internal values, core beliefs, and genuine feelings rather than by external social cues or situational expectations

• Behavioral Consistency: They act and speak the same way whether they are at home with close family, at a formal party, or in a professional meeting

• Value-Driven: Their choices rely on personal ethics, inner convictions, and authenticity rather than impression management

• Perceived Authenticity: Others often view them as honest, grounded, and trustworthy because what you see is genuinely what you get

• Social Rigidity: They can struggle to read the room or soften their delivery, which may come across as blunt, uncompromising, or socially awkward

• Example: When dating, low self-monitors look deeply for shared core values, inner character, and emotional honesty rather than surface-level charm or social status. They tend to have fewer romantic partners over time and prefer deep, long-lasting connections

what are the criterion of DSM-5 Alternative Model?

measures both severity (how impaired a person is) and style (what specific maladaptive traits they have)

Criterion A evaluates how deeply a person struggles with basic self- and interpersonal tasks. This is measured using the Level of Personality Functioning Scale (LPFS), rated on a 5-point scale from little/no impairment to extreme impairment

Self-Functioning

• Identity: Experiencing oneself as unique, with clear boundaries, stable self-esteem, and accurate self-appraisal.

  • Example: A person with severe identity impairment has a shifting, unstable sense of who they are, adopting entirely different values depending on who they are dating or working with.

• Self-Direction: Pursuing meaningful short-term and life goals, and using constructive internal standards of behavior.

  • Example: A person constantly changes career paths or life goals on a whim and cannot stick to personal codes of conduct or responsibilities

Interpersonal Functioning

• Empathy: Comprehending and valuing others' experiences, and recognizing that other people have different perspectives.

  • Example: A person is completely unable to recognize how their angry outbursts or insults hurt a friend or family member.

• Intimacy: Deep, enduring connections with others, a desire and capacity for closeness, and mutual respect.

  • Example: A person views relationships strictly as transactional or superficial, avoiding any emotional vulnerability or genuine attachment.

Criterion B looks at the specific "flavor" of the personality disorder using 5 broad trait domains and 25 more specific facets.

Criterion B in the Alternative Model for Personality Disorders DSM-5

1. Negative Affectivity (frequent and intense experiences of high-level negative emotions)

• Facets: Emotional lability, Anxiousness, Separation insecurity, Submissiveness, Hostility, Perseveration, Depressivity, Suspiciousness, and (restricted) Affectivity (low)

2. Detachment (avoidance of socio-emotional experience and withdrawn interpersonal interactions)

• Facets: Withdrawal, Intimacy avoidance, Anhedonia, Depressivity, Restricted affect, and Suspiciousness

3. Antagonism (behaviors that put the individual at odds with other people)

• Facets: Manipulativeness, Deceitfulness, Grandiosity, Attention seeking, Callousness, and Hostility

4. Disinhibition (orientation toward immediate gratification and impulsive behavior driven by current thoughts/stimuli)

• Facets: Irresponsibility, Impulsivity, Distractibility, Risk taking (or foolhardiness), and lack of Rigid perfectionism (or excess/lack thereof).

5. Psychoticism (exhibiting a wide range of culturally incongruent, odd, eccentric, or bizarre behaviors and cognitions)

• Facets: Unusual beliefs and experiences, Eccentricity, and Cognitive and perceptual dysregulation

Impression Management

the conscious or subconscious process by which people regulate and control how others perceive them to fit personal, social, or professional goals.

• Impression Motivation: How much a person cares about managing a specific audience's perception in a given moment (which increases when stakes or outcomes are high).

• Impression Construction: The specific behaviors, choices, and information people select—or hide—to project a desired image

Negative Affectivity

a personality trait that describes a person's stable, enduring tendency to experience unpleasant or distressing emotions—such as anxiety, sadness, anger, guilt, and nervousness—and to view themselves and the world in a more negative light

• trait vs. State: It is an enduring personality disposition rather than a temporary bad mood, meaning people with high negative affectivity regularly lean toward pessimistic or stressed outlooks

• Key facets: Anxiousness, emotional lability (rapid mood swings), separation insecurity, and hostility.

• Example: A person who experiences overwhelming panic and extreme fear of abandonment if a partner does not text back within a few minutes, leading to constant emotional distress and crisis.

• acts as a general risk factor for various mental health struggles (like depression and anxiety disorders)

Detachment

• What it is: Avoiding socio-emotional experiences, ranging from interpersonal withdrawal to a total lack of pleasure in life.

• Key facets: Withdrawal, anhedonia (inability to feel joy), and intimacy avoidance.

• Example: An individual who completely isolates themselves from friends and family, refuses to form close romantic or platonic bonds, and feels no enjoyment from hobbies or social gatherings.

Antagonism

What it is: Behaviors that put the person at odds with others, marked by a grandiose sense of self-importance and a lack of empathy or concern for others' feelings

• Key facets: Manipulativeness, deceitfulness, grandiosity, and callousness.

• Example: Someone who routinely lies, exploits coworkers or friends to get ahead, lacks remorse when hurting others, and believes they deserve special treatment.

Disinhibition

• What it is: Orientation toward immediate gratification and acting on impulsive, reckless urges without regard for future consequences.

• Key facets: Impulsivity, irresponsibility, distractibility, and risk-taking.

• Example: A person who frequently quits jobs on a whim, spends rent money on a sudden impulse purchase, or engages in dangerous, uncalculated physical risks.

Psychoticism

• What it is: Having bizarre, eccentric, or unusual thoughts, perceptions, and beliefs that deviate heavily from cultural norms.

• Key facets: Unusual beliefs and experiences, eccentricity, and perceptual dysregulation.

• Example: An individual who firmly believes they possess special telepathic powers or that everyday public signs are direct, hidden personal messages meant only for them.

What is the definition of personality?

the characteristic patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that make a person unique. Personality arises from within the individual and remains fairly consistent across situations and time.

Personality Psychology

“The scientific study of the unique individual. “

• Focus on individual differences among people

Three main layers of personality

• Author: life stories (the deepest layer) 

• Agent: goals and values 

• Actor: Dispositional Traits 

The Myers-Briggs Test

a self-report questionnaire that evaluates personal preferences across four categorical dichotomies to sort people into 16 distinct personality types

• Not very helpful (e.g., infp or entj) 

what were the findings of 2019 article about personality vs. no personality?

• 100 community adults were asked to respond to two open ended questions: in your opinion what does it mean to have “no personality” or a “lot of personality”

• They were then asked to name a fictional character who they believed had “no personality” or a “lot of personality.” (from book, show, movie, comics, etc) 

• They then used the Big 5 trait inventory to rate a person with “no personality” vs a “lot of personality” 

• Then asked to rate how observable and desirable each of the big 5 traits were

• Extraversion and openness are most associated with having a personality 

• Extraversion is the most observable trait

• Openness to experience is the most differentially evaluated trait

What Big Five traits are most associated with having a personality?

Extraversion and Openness

What is the most observable Big Five Trait?

Extraversion

What is the most differentially valued trait (big five)?

Openness to Experience is widely recognized as the most differentially valued trait across different cultures and social structures.

• Individualistic Cultures: High levels of Openness are exceptionally well-regarded, as they correlate with intellectual curiosity, creativity, and non-conformity

• Collectivistic / Traditional Cultures: Openness is often valued much less or can even be viewed skeptically. In societies that prioritize strict social uniformity, adherence to traditions, and predictable group behavior, a high preference for novelty and routine disruption may be seen as a liability rather than an asset.

A study about intentional personality change:

• Can we change our personality? 

• If you live in the same environment as you always have, are you capable of changing your personality?

Study Design:

• 6 wave longitudinal personal-goal paradigm 1,468 university 

• Wave 1 (beginning of the school year) 

• Participants: (15,000 ppl) 

  • Listed three important goals for the coming year 

  • Indicated why they were pursuing each goal using SDT motivation measures

  • Completed measures of personality and well-being 

Researchers then coded whether each goal was a personality change goal (PCG) 

• E.g., “become more outgoing, less anxious, or more organized” 

Key innovation: rather than asking directly whether they wanted to change their personality, the researched examined whether participants spontaneously listed a personality change goal among their personal goals (no pressure) 

*only 20% of the sample had personality goals 

Main Findings:

• About 20% spontaneously set a personality change goal

• Extraversion was the most common trait people wanted to change

• Personality change goals were more autonomous than other goals (self-motivated)

• People reported substantial progress of these PCG goals

• Progress (success) was associated with increased well-being 

How much better do people feel because they are making (e.g., academic progress) vs. personality progress? 

Personality progress more impactful 

What is one of the keys to personality change and why ?

1. Autonomy may be one of the keys to personality change 

• Personality change goals were, on average, more autonomously motivated than other personal goals (more successful when we are personally motivated to fulfill them rather than being pressured)