AP psych perception

Bottom-up processing

Perception starting with basic sensory information and building it up into a complete perception.

Top-down processing

Using pre-existing knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.

Selective attention

Ability to focus on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Cocktail party effect

Ability to focus on a single conversation of interest despite background noise.

Relationship between texting and accidents

Texting while driving increases the risk of accidents due to diverted attention.

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice unexpected stimuli due to focused attention elsewhere.

Change blindness

Inability to detect changes in a scene, especially when attention is diverted.

Transduction

Conversion of sensory stimuli into neural impulses for interpretation by the brain.

Absolute threshold

Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory

Detection of faint stimuli amid background noise depends on sensitivity and decision-making criteria.

Subliminal stimulation

Presentation of stimuli below the threshold of conscious awareness.

Subliminal stimulation in advertising

Use of subliminal messages in advertising to influence behavior, with limited evidence of effectiveness.

Difference threshold

Smallest change in a stimulus that can be detected.

Weber's Law

Just noticeable difference of a stimulus is proportional to the original stimulus intensity.

Sensory adaptation

Decrease in sensitivity to a constant stimulus over time.

Wavelength

Distance between successive peaks of a wave in light and sound.

Hue

Attribute of color that distinguishes one color from another.

Amplitude

Height of a wave, determining intensity or brightness of a stimulus in light or loudness of a sound.

Intensity

Amount of energy in a wave, corresponding to brightness of light or loudness of sound.

Way light enters the eye

Cornea, pupil, lens, and retina.

Rods/Cones

Photoreceptor cells in the retina responsible for vision in low light and color vision in bright light.

Bipolar/Ganglion cells

Cells in the retina that transmit visual information to the brain.

Optic nerve

Bundle of nerve fibers carrying visual information from the retina to the brain.

Blindspot

Area on the retina where the optic nerve exits, resulting in the inability to detect light.

Fovea

Depression in the retina with high concentration of cone cells for sharp central vision.

Feature detection

Specialized neurons in the brain responding to specific features of a stimulus.

Parallel processing

Simultaneous processing of multiple aspects of a stimulus in different parts of the brain.

Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic theory

Color vision based on three types of cone cells sensitive to red, green, and blue.

Afterimages

Visual illusions occurring after staring at a stimulus and looking away.

Opponent-Process theory

Color perception based on pairs of opposing colors.

Amplitude/volume

Height of sound waves determining the loudness of a sound.

Pitch/frequency

Perceived frequency of a sound wave determining its high or low pitch.

Decibels

Unit of measurement for the intensity or loudness of a sound.

Path sound follows in the ear

Outer ear, ear canal, eardrum, middle ear bones, cochlea.

Cilia

Hair-like structures on hair cells in the cochlea detecting sound vibrations.

Conduction hearing loss

Problem with sound wave conduction through the outer or middle ear.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Damage to hair cells in the cochlea or auditory nerve.

Cochlear implants

Electronic devices stimulating the auditory nerve for severe to profound hearing loss.

Theories of hearing

Place theory, frequency theory, and volley principle.

Four sensations of touch

Pressure, warmth, cold, and pain.

Gate-control theory

Mechanism in the spinal cord modulating the transmission of pain signals.

Endorphins

Neurotransmitters acting as natural painkillers and producing feelings of euphoria.

Phantom limb pain

Sensation of pain in a missing limb.

Biopsychosocial theory of pain

Interaction between biological, psychological, and social factors in pain experience.

Controlling pain

Techniques including medication, therapy, and alternative therapies for pain management.

Five basic tastes

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami.

Kinesthesis

Sense of perceiving body position and movement.

Vestibular sense

Sense of balance and spatial orientation.

Sensory interaction

Interaction between different sensory modalities influencing perception.

Embodied cognition

Cognitive processes influenced by bodily sensations and physical states.

Perceptual set

Predisposition to perceive something in a particular way based on

Motivation/emotion and perception

Motivation and emotion can influence perception by directing attention, shaping perceptual biases, and influencing interpretation of sensory information.

ESP (Extrasensory perception)

ESP refers to the purported ability to acquire information through means other than the recognized senses.

Parapsychology

Parapsychology is the scientific study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP, psychokinesis, and near-death experiences.

Testing ESP

Testing ESP involves designing experiments to assess individuals' ability to demonstrate paranormal abilities under controlled conditions.

Gestalt

Gestalt psychology emphasizes the holistic perception of objects and patterns.

Figure-ground

Figure-ground perception refers to the ability to distinguish between an object of interest and its background in a visual scene.

Grouping

Grouping refers to the tendency to organize elements into meaningful wholes or patterns based on certain principles.

Proximity

Proximity is a principle of grouping that refers to the tendency to perceive objects that are close to each other as belonging together.

Continuity

Continuity is a principle of grouping that refers to the tendency to perceive continuous lines or patterns.

Closure

Closure is a principle of grouping that refers to the tendency to perceive incomplete figures as complete or whole.

Depth perception

Depth perception is the ability to perceive the three-dimensional structure of objects and to judge distances between objects in space.

Visual cliff experiments

Visual cliff experiments are used to study depth perception in infants and animals.

Binocular cues

Binocular cues to depth perception rely on the use of both eyes and include binocular disparity and convergence.

Monocular cues

Monocular cues to depth perception require only one eye and include cues such as relative size, interposition, and linear perspective.

Stroboscopic movement

Stroboscopic movement is an illusion of motion that occurs when a rapid series of slightly different images is presented in succession.

Phi phenomenon

The phi phenomenon is an illusion of motion that occurs when two or more stationary lights are flashed in succession in different locations.

Relative height

Relative height is a monocular cue to depth perception that relies on the position of objects in the visual field.

Relative motion

Relative motion is a monocular cue to depth perception that relies on the perceived movement of objects as we move through the environment.

Relative size

Relative size is a monocular cue to depth perception that relies on the perceived size of objects in the visual field.

Interposition

Interposition is a monocular cue to depth perception that occurs when one object partially blocks the view of another object.

Linear perspective

Linear perspective is a monocular cue to depth perception that relies on the convergence of parallel lines in the visual field.

Light and shadow

Light and shadow is a monocular cue to depth perception that relies on differences in brightness and shadowing to perceive depth and form.

Perceptual constancy

Perceptual constancy is the tendency to perceive objects as maintaining stable properties, such as size, shape, color, and brightness.

Restored vision and sensory restriction

Restored vision refers to the regaining of vision after a period of sensory deprivation, while sensory restriction refers to the temporary or permanent loss of one or more sensory modalities.

Perceptual adaptation

Perceptual adaptation is the process by which the perceptual system adjusts to changes in the sensory environment.

Bottom-up processing

This is a type of sensory processing where perception begins with the basic sensory information and works upwards to form a complete perception.

Top-down processing

In contrast to bottom-up processing, top-down processing involves using pre-existing knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory information.

Selective attention

This refers to the ability to focus on a specific stimulus while ignoring others.

Cocktail party effect

This is a phenomenon where despite a lot of background noise, you're able to focus your attention on a single conversation of interest.

Relationship between texting and accidents

Research has shown that texting while driving significantly increases the risk of accidents.

Inattentional blindness

This occurs when we fail to notice unexpected stimuli in our environment because our attention is focused elsewhere.

Change blindness

Change blindness refers to the inability to detect changes in a scene, particularly when those changes occur gradually or when attention is diverted elsewhere.

Transduction

This is the process by which sensory stimuli are converted into neural impulses that can be interpreted by the brain.

Absolute threshold

This is the minimum amount of stimulation needed for a person to detect a stimulus 50% of the time.

Signal detection theory

This theory explains how people detect faint stimuli amid background noise.

Subliminal stimulation

This refers to the presentation of stimuli below the threshold of conscious awareness.

Subliminal stimulation in advertising

Some advertisers have attempted to use

Afterimages

Visual illusions that occur after staring at a stimulus for an extended period and then looking away.

Opponent-Process theory

Theory of color vision based on pairs of opposing colors that inhibit each other's perception.

Amplitude/volume

Refers to the height of sound waves, determining the volume or loudness of the sound.

Pitch/frequency

Refers to the perceived frequency of a sound wave, determining the highness or lowness of the sound.

Decibels

Unit of measurement used to quantify the intensity or loudness of a sound.

Path sound follows in the ear

Sound waves enter the ear through the outer ear, travel down the ear canal to the eardrum, and then to the cochlea in the inner ear.

Cilia

Tiny hair-like structures on the hair cells in the cochlea that bend when sound vibrations occur, triggering the release of neurotransmitters.

Conduction hearing loss

Hearing loss due to problems with the conduction of sound waves through the outer or middle ear.

Sensorineural hearing loss

Hearing loss due to damage to the hair cells in the cochlea or the auditory nerve.

Cochlear implants

Electronic devices implanted into the cochlea to provide sound perception for individuals with severe to profound sensorineural hearing loss.

Theories of hearing

Place theory, frequency theory, and the volley principle explain how we perceive pitch.

Four sensations of touch

Pressure, warmth, cold, and pain are the primary sensations of touch.