Edit · social psych chapters 4-6 (exam 2)

attitudes

feelings, often influenced by our beliefs, that predispose us to respond favorable or unfavorable to objects, people, and events

affect (feelings), behavior tendency, and cognition (thoughts)

the ABCs of attitudes

their varying behaviors

people's expressed attitudes hardly predicted...

because they are both subject to other influences

why do our behavior and expressed attitudes differ?

implicit association test (IAT)

a computer-driven assessment of implicit attitudes. the test uses reaction times to measure people's automatic associations between attitude objects and evaluative words. easier pairings/faster responses = stronger unconscious associations

implicit & explicit

behavior is predicted best with a combination of both _____ & ______ measures

dual processing system

the existence of distinct explicit and implicit attitudes confirms which theory?

when will attitudes predict behavior?

1. when we minimize other influences upon our attitude statements and on our behavior

2. when the attitude is specifically relevant to the observed behavior

3. when an attitude is potent (effective, impactful)—something reminds us of it or we have direct experience

role

a set of norms that defines how people in a given social position ought to behave

perform a worse act

a trifling evil act erodes one's moral sensitvity, making it easier to...

quickly becoming desensitized

the more one harms another, then adjusts their attitudes, it becomes easier to do harm

why does our behavior affect our attitudes?

- self-presentation theory says that for strategic reasons, we express attitudes that make us appear consistent

- cognitive dissonance says that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to ourselves

- self-perception theory says that our actions are self-revealing; when uncertain about our feelings/beliefs, we look to our behavior

cognitive dissonance

tension that arises when one is simultaneously aware of two inconsistent cognitions

when might cognitive dissonance occur?

- when we realize that we have, with little justification, acted contrary to our attitudes or mae a decision favoring one alternative despite reasons for favoring another

- when we have two inconsistent beliefs

selective exposure

the tendency to seek information and media that agree with one's views and to avoid dissonant information

selective exposure

people minimize dissonance via...

cling to their attitude (smoking isnt dangerous)

if someone finds it difficult to change their behavior (smoking), they tend to...

insufficient justification

reduction of dissonance by internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is "insufficient"

insufficient justification works with punishments

when a parent says "clean your room or all your toys will go away," the child won't need to internally justify cleaning their room—the severe threat is enough. BUT if a milder threat were used, the child will think they're cleaning their room because they want to

self-perception theory

the theory that when we are unsure of our attitudes, we infer them much as would someone observing us—by looking at our behavior and the circumstances under which it occurs

facial feedback effect

the tendency of facial expressions to trigger corresponding feelings, such as fear, anger, or happiness.

overjustification effect

the result of bribing people to do what they already like doing; they may then see their actions as externally controlled rather than intrinsically appealing

instrinsic motivation

rewards/praise that inform people of their achievements boost...

self-affirmation theory

a theory that (a) people often experience a self-image threat after engaging in undesirable behavior; and (b) they can compensate by affirming another aspect of the self. threaten people's self-concept in one domain and they will compensate either by refocusing or by doing good deeds in some other domain

- when external influences on people's actions are minimal (situational factors)

- when the attitude is specific to the behavior

- when people are conscious of their attitudes

influence people's actions, especially when three conditions are met:

perform a worse act (small ethical lapses predispose later big ones)

trifling evil act erodes one's moral sensitivity, making it easier to...

the easier it becomes to do the harm

the more one harms another and adjusts ones attitudes,...

brainwashing

term coined to describe what happened to the American prisoners of war during the 1950s Korean War

verbal or actual

sometimes it takes a ______ or ______ wake-up call to change our behavior

method used to control people by undue influence. it stands for behavior, information, thought, emotional

what is the BITE model and what does it stand for?

self-revealing

what people freely say and do can be...

natural selection

the evolutionary process by which heritable traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce in particular environments are passed to ensuing generations

evolutionary psychology

the study of the evolution of cognition and behavior using principles of natural selection

immediate, sudden

we fear what's __________ and ______ more than greater, gradual harms from historically newer threats

sex

the two biological categories of male and female

gender

in psychology, the characteristics, whether biologically or socially influenced, that we associate with males and females

transgender

someone whose psychological sense of being male or female differs from their birth sex

testosterone

a hormone more prevalent in males than females that is linked to dominance and aggression

androgynous

from ando (man) + gyn (woman)—thus mixing both masculine and feminine characteristics

culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next

epigenetics

the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without DNA change

norms

standards for accepted and expected behavior

personal space

the buffer zone we like to maintain around our bodies. its size depends on our familiarity with whoever is near us

gender role

a set of behavior expectations (norms) for male and females

empathy

the vicarious experience of another's feelings; putting oneself in another's shoes

aggression

physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt someone (in laboratory experiments, this might mean delivering electric shocks or saying something likely to hurt another's feelings)

interaction

a relationship in which the effect of one factor (such as biology) depends on another factor (such as environment)

clinical judgments, vulnerable to:

- illusory correlations

- overconfidence bred by hindsight

- self-confirming diagnoses

illusory correlation can be perceived by clinicians:

to discover when a perception is an illusory correlation, one clinician can administer and interpret the test and another clinician can assess the same person's traits or symptoms

hindsight: a common reaction to bad events is to think...

people should have been able to predict them

self-confirming diagnoses

clinical judgement may prod patients to produce evidence that seems to support it

fit their therapists' theories

behaviors of people undergoing psychotherapy come to...

human intuition, statistical predictions

_____ intuition, even expert intuition, is more unreliable than _____ predictions

statistical predictions are helpful in predicting:

- medical outcomes

- statistical outcomes

- government agency outcomes

- micellaneous outcomes

1. chromosomal

2. gonadal

3. hormonal

4. internal sex organs

5. external sex organs

6. assigned gender

7. gender identity

what are the 7 stages or aspects of sex and gender development?

chromosomal stage

- occurs at moment of fertilization (one tenth of a second)

- dependent on the type of sperm (Y sperm tend to swim faster, but die sooner)

- XX = female karyotype, XY = male karyotype

sex differences before and after fertilization

- fast-swimming sperm (Y) can reach egg in 30 mins, while (X) may take days

- sperm can live up to 48-72 hours

- males are more likely to conceived than females

chromosomal anomalies

XO = Turner's Syndrome (male sperm missing genetic info.) - only females have this

XXX = Female Trisomy "superfemale" (1/1000)

XYY = Male Trisomy "Jacob's Syndrome" (1/1000)

XXY = Klinefelter Syndrome (1/500) - intersex

gonadal stage

- begins after 4th week after conception

- undifferentiated (homologous) gonads begin to differentiate into... testicles (male) or ovaries (female)

hormonal stage

- begins the 5th and 6th weeks after conception (until week 12)

- if testosterone present = male

- if testosterone absent and MIH (Mullerian inhibiting hormone) = female

- these effects show up in both internal and external genital development

hormonal brain differentiation

- 6 to 12 weeks (presence or absence of testosterone)

- permanent organizing effect on the brain (brain circuits)

- during pubescence, these circuits are activated morphologically and behaviorally

- males have longer umbilical cords—due to greater overall physical activity (testosterone)

-females have more mouth/lip activity in womb—due to female advanced facility with language

examples of gender fetal differences

hormonal differentiation anomalies

- CAH

-CAIS boys

hormonal anomaly

(congenital adrenal hyperplasia) girls (XX) (1 in 10,000-18,000): testosterone exposure due to deficiency of the enzyme, 21-hydroxylase, they tend to have more male traits/characteristics

what is CAH?

hormonal anomaly

- in boys (complete androgen insensitivity syndrome) (1 in 30,000-50,000)

- genetic condition which prevents testosterone from being transformed into dihydrotestosterone (lack of testosterone)

- morphologically mostly female (born with external genitalia that appear female, but internally have testicles and lack uterus)

what is CAIS?

internal sex organs

- begins the 5th and 6th weeks after conception

- 2 sets of ducts in undifferentiated state (wolfian ducts and mullerian ducts)

mullerian ducts differentiate into fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina.

wolfian ducts disappear.

if testosterone and MIH is absent, then...

wolfian ducts differentiate into vas deferens, and mullerian ducts disappear.

if testosterone and MIH is present, then...

external sex organs

- begins 5th and 6th week after conception

- undifferentiated (homologous) organs begin to differentiate into either the clitoris (f) and glans penis (m)

male vs. female development

clitoris —> glans of the penis

hood of clitoris —> foreskin of the penis

labia minora —> shaft of penis

labia majora —> scrotal sac

ovaries —> testes

assigned gender

- "it's a girl" / "it's a boy"

- here is where things are influenced by family, cultural and societal considerations (socialization)

gender identity

- self-appropriation of gender identity

- rise over past few years (almost double) in 13-24 age cohort identifying as transgender

- increased awareness and social acceptance

- better data collection methods

- influence of social media

why have more people ages 13-24 recently been identifying as transgender?

conformity

a change in behavior or belief as a result of real or imagined group pressure

acceptance

conformity that involves both acting and believing in accord with social pressure

compliance

conformity that involved publicly acting in accord with an implied or explicit request while privately disagreeing

obedience

a type of compliance involving acting accord with a direct order or command

autokinetic phenomenon

self (auto) motion (kinetic). the apparent movement of a stationary point of light in the dark

mass hysteria

suggestibility to problems that spreads throughout a large group of people

cohesiveness

a "we feeling"; the extent to which members of a group are bound together, such as by attraction to one another (the more ________ a group is, the more power it gains over its members)

normative influence

conformity based on a person's desire to fulfill others' expectations, often to gain acceptance/approval (desire to be liked)

informational influence

conformity occuring when people accept evidence about reality provided by other people (desire to be right)

reactance

a motive to protect or restore one's sense of freedom; it arises when someone threatens our freedom of action

gender similarities: females and males are...

- similar in many physical traits and developmental milestones during infancy

- alike in many psychological traits

- feel the same emotions and longings

gender differences between girls and boys:

girls tend to talk more intimately, play less aggressively, and play in small groups. boys play aggressively and engage in larger group activities

women are more likely to...

- talk for longer when the goal is affiliation with others

- spend more times on social media

- tend and befriend when they are under stress

- be less interruptive, more sensitive, more polite, less cocky, more qualified, and more hedged

- interested in jobs dealing with people

- gravitate towards jobs that reduce inequalities

- value good hours, personal relationships, and opportunities to help others

men are more likely to...

- talk when the goal is asserting one's opinions and giving information

- spend more time on online gaming

- respond with fight or flight when facing stress

- talk assertively, interrupt intrusively, touch with the hand, stare more, and smile less

- interested in jobs dealing with things

- gravitate disproportionally towards jobs that enhance inequalities

- value earnings, promotion, challenge, and power

twice

women spend about _______ as much time caring for children as men

women

men and women turn to ________ when they want empathy and understanding

men, women

in leadership roles, _____ tend to excel as directive, task-focused leaders and _____ excel in transformational or relational leadership

women, men. example: verbal aggression

within less assaultive forms of aggression, _____ are no less aggressive than ____ men. & give an example

women, men. examples: exclusion, spreading malicious gossip

______ are slightly more likely to commit indirect aggressive acts than ______ (give examples of this)

compared with lesbians, gay men report more:

- interest in uncommitted sex and pornography

- frequent sex

- responsiveness to visual stimuli

- concern with partner attractiveness

female sexuality

cultures everywhere attribute greater value to...

sexual fantasies differ between men and women:

- in male-oriented erotica, women are unattached and lust-driven

- in romance novels, a strong male is emotionally consumed

human adaptability

cultural perspective highlights...

socially programmed

much of behavior is _______ ________, not hardwired

- individual choices

- expressiveness

- punctuality

- rule breaking

- personal space

cultures vary in their norms for:

with intimates, subordinates, close friends, family members, pets

use a familiar form of pronoun "you" with...

with higher-status people

use a formal form of pronoun "you" with...