psyc 307 midterm 2

The ship of Theseus

1000s of years ago

• Imagine theseus owner of ship

• Over time replace the ships parts 

• Over time every piece of the ship have een replaces

• Is it still the old ship or is it now a new ship?

• Authorship and ownership is really important

is self updating?

Similarly, the “self” is continuously updated over time

Yet in Western culture, a sense of a stable self is the most important thing

• I think, therefore i am

Many Eastern contemplative traditions, such as buddhism and taoism, say this” self” is a illusion

• Where self is, truth is not. Where truth is, self is not

• Figment of our imagination 

  • Getting rid of evil is the goal

Self-Concept

How we perceive ourselves plays a crucial role in how we relate to many things in life.

The self-concept is implicated in:

• Directing what social information we should attend to

• How we derive meaning from event

  • What is meaningful

• What kinds of relationships we have

• How we experience our emotions 

• How we make moral judgments

• What we are motivated to work towards

Measured using twenty statements test

self-concept in WEIRD

Classic paper by Markus and Kitayama (1991).

• Much of what is known in social psychology has been studied with people with predominantly an independent self.

• In much of the non-Western world, in contrast, an interdependent self is more common.

• The WEIRD problem all over again

Independent View of Self

You are at the center with relationships surrounding you

• Yourself and others you have relationships are independent, no overlap

• Within a group(porus so ppl can come and leave)

experienced as largely independent from others.

• important aspects of the self are personal characteristics.

• aspects of themselves are Self-contained- they arise from the individual and not from interactions with others 

• present themselves in ways consistent with these attributes 

• remains largely constant across roles and situations.

• influencing the situation is the priority

  • To make it better for me 

• direct communication style

  • Really understand who you are

  • Worst fear: misunderstood

Pic

• Individual doesn’t overlap

• Large X(aspects of identity)are in individual

• Circle around individual is solid - stable in diff situations

• Dotted line indicating fluid movement within ingroup

Interdependent View of Self

More overlap

• Groups are more defined, harder to enter and leave
  
  

individual’s sense of self is importantly

• interconnected to the selves of others.

• key aspects of the self include roles, relationships, and memberships.

  • Role as a sibling is different than role of friend

    • Sense of self is changing

• Because roles change across situations, the self is also somewhat fluid across situations.

• adjusting to situations is the priority

• indirect communication style

  • Thinking ppl will understand you 

  • Fear of exclusion

Pic

• Individual overlaps with other significant relationships

• Large Xs are in intersections between self and significant relationships

  • These relationships show what group they belong to  

• Self is dotted so experience of identity is fluid and changing depending on the relationships

• Solid line between ingroup/outgroup, so less/no movement

  • They define themselves through important people so have to be close for that

twenty statements test application

People are asked to describe themselves with a number of statements that begin with

• “I am _______.”

• I am canadian/siste/intorvert 

The kinds of statements that they list are then counted and analyzed.

Although everyone can access both self-construals, people from different cultures

Comparison of American college students vs. various groups in Kenya

• More personal characteristics in american undergrads and nairobi undergrads

• Workers say more roles but still some personal characteristics

• Other ppl in kenya groups have very little personal and a lot roles .

• Seen in all western countries and starting even in kindergarten

Cultural differences in self-concept brain study

Chinese and western participants studied under fMRI

• Asked to consider how well a number of trait adjectives characterized them or their mothers

• Westerner show different regions in brain activation

• Chinese show same brain activation (medial prefrontal cortex for self representation)

Variability in interdependent self

Arabian - can be quite assertive 

Latin america - collectiveist values but self-reliant and consistent, emphasizing self-expression

South asia - use argue in conflict which is more independent

Self-Construal Scale

Ind

• I enjoy being unique and different from others in many respects

• I'd rather say "No" directly, than risk being misunderstood

• I am comfortable with being singled out for praise or rewards
  
  

INTER

• Even when I strongly disagree with group members, I avoid an argument

  • Parliament in japan vs us 

  • Yelling screaming vs agreeable

• If my brother or sister fails, I feel responsible

• My relationships with others are more important than my own accomplishments

ingroup /outgroup

Interdependent

• Ingroup serves to direct appropriate behaviours and obligations towards these relationships

• Important to distinguish those towards whom they have obligations from and those they do not

• Being a member of one ingroup is a serious role and not easy to get into

• Rare to lose a member(become outgroup)

• not always good

  • stronger obligation, so less ability to leave and more competition

Independent

• People in ingroup is not as important to self

• New relationships and old lost doesn’t have much impact to the self

  • More willing to form news connections and less stressed when old ones die

Individualism-Collectivism and where its found

Individualism: A cultural pattern in which individual goals and preferences take priority over group goals. (This matches Independent self-construal)

• Men are more individual

• Individual rights take priority

• mosty United States, closely followed by other English-speaking countries and by Western European nations

Collectivism: A cultural pattern in which group goals and preferences take priority over individual goals. (This matches Interdependent self-construal)

• Women are more collective - only on relatedness(perception of others’ feelings)

• Latin America and Asia, Africa, Southern Europe, Eastern Europe, and the South Pacific

• 80% of the world pop

Possible variation within countries

• ex. hawaii cuz more asain ancestry

• higher social class is associated With dominant cultural values

• Periods of economic growth tend to be linked with growing rates of independence and recessions, with increasing interdependence

Individualism-Collectivism examples

Influencing vs Fitting in?

• Suppose you, as a manager, are hiring a new employee to work in your department. Which of the two following considerations are more important to you?

  • 1. She must fit into the group in which she is to work (COL)

    • Be a team member

  • 2. She must have the skills, the knowledge, and a previous success record (IND)

• Highest is the US and Canada, lowest is Singapore and japan

Morality justice-based or obligation-based?

• You run a department of a division of a large company. One of your subordinates, whom you know has trouble at home, is frequently coming in significantly late. What right does this colleague to be protected by you from others in the department

• highest “no right” in US and Germany, lowest in Italy and France

  
  

How Individualism-Collectivism is measured at the cultural level

More individualistic cultures tend to have:

• Small household size

• Adults living alone

• High divorce rates

• Unique baby names

Global Patterns of Individualism-Collectivism

Individualism has been increasing in the world

But outside of the West, most of the world remains collectivistic — large cultural differences remain

Some of the strongest predictors of individualism are a country's:

• Economic development

• Higher education rates

• Length of exposure to the Latin church's family and marriage practices (historical bans on monogamy and cousin marriage)

  • cultural individualism changes were initiated by some changes in policies enacted by the Western Church

    • new religious laws: weaken the intensity of kinship, (obligations and ties toward large clans and families)

    • prohibited marriage to family and arranged marriage

Why is US so individualistic

The country remained a frontier and attracted those who sought more individual freedom than was available in their homelands

• Analyses reveal that American counties that were on an underpopulated frontier for a longer period of history are more individualistic than others

  • people had to fend for themselves and no time for niceties

  • people who move here are more independent in general

Socio-economic class difference

Within countries groups also vary in their self-concepts.

The wealthier and more educated groups tend to be more independent than the less wealthy and less educated groups

• Different jobs/roles  (need to rely on other)

• Kid expectations (what their future is nurtures them to be col/inv)

  • low economic status - greater value on conforming to authority figures

  • Middle-class Americans emphasise self-direction

Many of the cross-cultural findings discussed in this course also hold for comparisons of socio-economic differences within the west

University students tend to come from higher social class backgrounds, which means their self-constructual is more independent than the general population 

first generation university students

Achievement gap between first generation and continuing generation students

• Cultural mismatch hypothesis

• University cultural norms favor independent self-construal

• Cultural mismatch —> lower grades

• Independent message: “Paving your own path”

• Interdependent message: “being part of community”

Cultural Fit

the extent to which an individual is aligned with the dominant cultural meaning that surround them

cultural differences in thoughts on gender equality

men and women shared fairly similar views about gender equality.

• India, Pakistan, and Nigeria are more likely to embrace traditional gender attitudes than women from European nations

• men had significantly more traditional gender views than women—probably because traditional gender views benefit men more than women.

• Christianity, specifically Protestantism, were more likely to have egalitarian gender views, Muslims were associated With more traditional gender views

• Northern countries had mostly egalitarian views than southern countries

• urbanization = equality

• individualism = equality

Self-awareness

Self-Consistency

Motivated to feel you have a consistent self - not universal

The interdependent self is more contextually variable than the independent self

The interdependent self is more grounded in roles, and therefore, it varies across situations more than the independent self.

• In one study, Japanese and American students completed the Twenty Statements Test in different situations

• There were 4 test-taking situations:

  • prof, peer, alone, lots of peers

• The key variable of interest was how similarly positive were people’s self-descriptions across situations

  • American self-descriptions were highly similar across different situations.

    • Their self-descriptions were also uniformly positive. This reflects a self-enhancing cultural tendency

  • Japanese self-descriptions varied significantly across different situations.

    • They were more positive when alone and most critical when with their professor.

    • Their self-descriptions were also less positive than the Americans’. This reflects a self-critical cultural tendency

Consistency across situations was associated with higher feelings of authenticity, likeability, and social skills for European Americans but not for East Asian

But they do have consistency throughout time within each Of these relationships

• opportunities for this identity change across life so greater changes in their self-concept with age

cognitive dissonance.

We have a powerful motivation to be consistent,

Cognitive dissonance is the distressing feeling we have when we observe ourselves behaving inconsistently or against our own sense of self-consistency.

how to fix

• acting more consistently - hard how?

• dissonance reduction - change our attitudes so we no longer appear to be so inconsistent

ex. 2 likeable options but only choose one

• decision is made,

• dissonance might follow, because there are features of the alternatives that are inconsistent with that choice. (still appealing)

• To reduce the unpleasant feelings, people often rationalise by

  • viewing things consistent with their making a good decision as more important(postives in chosen and negative in reject)

  • inconsistent with their decision as less important (negatives in chosen, positives in reject)

findings

• Canadians showed this tendency

  • choice of CD nd later ranking showed this

• Japanese didn’t

  • will rationalise decisions they make for others (motivation to be consistent with others’ expectations)

  • rationalise decisions when they consider what others decided

Self-awareness

Subjective self-awareness vs objective self-awareness

In one study, Euro- and Asian-Canadian participants reported their memories for a variety of events. These were coded as 1st person or 3rd person imagery

• In some of the events they were the center of attention (e.g., your birthday party) and some they were not the center of attention (e.g., watching a movie with friends).

Third person memories

subjective self-awareness

“inside out” perspective - better suits the independent self, as the self is the ultimate arbiter of one's standing in the world

• subjective cuz depends on the person

objective self-awareness

“outside in” perspective - is better suited for the interdependent self, as it is more important to understand how others are viewing them

• looking at oneself objectively

“Inside out” vs “Outside in”

If I’m outside in, my self-view is guided by impressions of how others perceive me

if inside out, my thoughts about myself are less affected by others’ thoughts

creativity test

• American participants’ self-evaluations were relatively unaffected by whether they thought another person had seen either their good score or their average score

• Hong Kong participants' self-evaluations were affected by their knowledge of what another person knew about their performance.

who knows the self

• the individual should know the self the best - has all the experiences/inner

  • but people are motivated to see themselves in certain ways, which can often distort the accuracy of their self-assessments.

• Self-awareness can be changed by putting them in front of certain stimuli.

  • more self-critical as they become aware of how they might be falling short of their standards because they become judge

  The children from individualistic cultures donated fewer candies than they had earlier predicted, whereas collectivistic cultures donated about the same number

growth mindset

Our self-concept is largely fluid and responds to the efforts we make.

The belief that we can easily change, and are expected to change

• Cultures in which growth mindsets are more common have been characterised as "embrace difficulty” cultures

fixed mindset

theory that aspects of the self are resistant to change

Personality model name

five-factor model of personality

five-factor model of personality

Correlations among the different items in survey are lower in non-Western

• maybe the measure has a problem of generalizability

Does the Big Five capture all personality worldwide

• fairly cross-culturally robust but not exhaustive

• but little evidence in support of big five in non-indutrualized

  • items didn’t correlate well enough to yield distinctive traits

    • rather than 5, they had 2

    • could be that these questions are not the right fit

number of personality traits are dependent on the number of different niches

niche diversity hypothesis

• number of personality traits are dependent on the number of different niches

• when people live in an environment where there are opportunities for many different skill sets and traits to be cultivated and rewarded, personality comes to take on a larger set of basic underlying factors as they compete with each other for the different roles that are available

geography on personality

Minnesota and Wisconsin are a Friendly and Conventional region, with

• highest Extraversion, agreeableness, and conscientiousness

Western States, from Oregon to Arizona, are a Relaxed and Creative region

• lowest neuroticism and the highest openness to experience

Northeastern States, especially New York and Massachusetts, are a Temperamental and Uninhibited region

• highest on neuroticism and the lowest on conscientiousness

Personality traits tend to cluster because

• people influence one another through their daily interactions

• the demands of the local environment, such as the climate.

• People also move to places where there are more like-minded others

2017 Nobel Prize in Literature

greatest novelists in the English language Kazuo Ishiguro

• I’ve always felt I’ve had a sort of peripheral view of British society. I grew up here, but I never felt completely part of it. That distance gives you a certain kind of clarity

Being an “outsider” offers a unique perspective into a society. But why?

acculturation

Process of learning and adapting to a new culture that is different from their own

heritage culture is og

host culture is new

remote acculturation

learnign from afar by regularly watching itss media or eating its food

Common pattern in where people move

likely to go to regions of a country that are more similar to their home culture in terms of climate

migrants

People who move from a heritage culture to a host culture

sojourners- those who intend to stay temporarily (job-related move for period of time)

immigrant - those who want to stay permanently

stages of acculturation

honeymoon stage - first few months

• Good time, excited and enjoying a novel and exotic environment

culture shock/crisis stage - next 6-18 months

• Increasingly negative view of the host culture

• feeling of anxious, helpless, irritable, disoriented and home sick

  • Language, food, time 

    • Time perspective: slow pace of life (punctuality) 

    • Event time vs clock time 

  • Distress, anxiety, disorientation, due to:

    • Loss of familiar cues

    • The breakdown of communication

    • Identity crisis 

  • new interesting thing are less interesting and ppl are getting over your exoticness so you don’t have a common topic of convo

Adjustment stage - several years after getting past crisis

• start to addjust and begin to enjoy experiences more

• language, relationships, differences are more adapted to host culture

• start to think more like the locals around them

• people beoming increasingly competent at funtioning in their new culture

Who adjusts better?

People who don’t move to tighter social norms

younger people cuz less set in the ways of their heritage culture

Greater cultural intelligence and empathy

• The ability to understand and adapt to different cultural contexts.

• The ability to understand and relate to the feelings and perspectives of people from different cultures.

Better implicit pattern recognition

• What behaviours are more appropriate in a new culture

People who are aware of how they are learning about their new culture

Cultural distance

The more similar one’s heritage culture is to one’s host culture, the easier it is to acculturate

Greater cultural distance from the host culture tend to be related to more distress, more medical consultations, and more difficulty in making friendships with people from the host culture.

• For example, Malaysian exchange students who studied in culturally similar Singapore showed more successful adjustment than those who studied in more culturally distant New Zealand (Ward & Kennedy, 1995)

• Tsimshian (stratification and permanent) most easy acculturation, Cree (less stratified and migratory) least easy, Carrier (middle food accumulation and stratification) intermediate results

Acculturation Strategies

1. Do they attempt to participate in larger society of their host culture

2. Do they strive to maintain their own heritage culture and identity

Sometimes by choice, sometimes forced by the community

• The most common strategy is integration. This is the most successful strategy, and people tend to fare the best, as a person has two cultural communities from which to draw support.

  • effort to fit in and participate in host while maintaining heritage

  • also absence of prejudice or prsonailites that fit are more likely to use this

• Marginalization is the least common, and it has the fewest positive outcomes

  • little effort to fit in and maintain heritage

• Assimilation is intermediate in frequency 

  • In some studies, assimilation strategies yield as positive outcomes as integration strategies.

    • efforts to fit in but not maintaining heritage

  • disconnection to the past

• Separation is intermediate in frequency

  • effort to maintain heritage but not fit in

  • rejecting the host culture so they themselves are being rejected

what influences which acculturation strategy to use

1.  Immigrants who are targets of prejudice are less likely adopt assimilation or integration strategies

   1. Physically distinct ethnic groups are less likely to have a positive view cuz they face more prejudice

2. Separation or marginalization cuz the host culture doesn’t meet their needs or desires

3. Societies vary in the model of multiculturalism that they pursue, which changes the acculturation strategies that are most available

   1. Canada strives for a mosaic model, where each cultural group maintains its distinct characteristics, and participates in the national culture. This favors integration

   2. The US strives more for a “melting pot” model, where each ethnic group’s distinct characteristics are melted away as they learn to assimilate to the dominant culture

      1. Anti-immigrant attitudes due to the majority feeling threatened, as they think their status and power are diminishing with the influx of minority

identity denial

people’s cultural identity is questioned because they are not recognised as matching the prototype of the culture they are living in

• ex., when questioned about being an american to asian americans, more likely to try to demonstrate their authentic American identity

• ex., likely to be perceived as American if overweight

Stereotype threat

fear of behaving in a way that will confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group

People cope with stress from ST by disidentifying (not caring) with stereotyped domains and adopting strategies to avoid reminders of the stereotype

combating

• learn of its existence

Multicultural People

What kind of self-concept do people have who live in more than one culture?

Multicultural experiences affect self-concept in two ways, and there is evidence for both blending and frame-switching

Blending

bicultural people to show characteristics in between the 2 cultures

• Evidence for Blending

  • self-concepts of multicultural people look intermediate to those of monocultural people from different cultures

  • For example, the ways of thinking of Asian-Americans are in between those of Americans and Asians.

  • Consider the self-esteem of people with exposure to both Canadian and East Asian cultures

    • One study looked at the self-esteem of people longitudinally across two points in time: prior to moving to a new culture and then again 7 months after moving.

      • When Japanese had lived in Canada for 7 months, their self-esteem increased, Canadians had lived in Japan for 7 months, their self-esteem decreased significantly.

    • compared the self-esteem of people with exposure to East Asian and Canadian culture cross-sectionally.

      • “Never Been-Abroad” Japanese have moderate self-esteem scores whereas European-Canadians have high self-esteem.

      • The self-esteem of East Asians increases with exposure to North American culture.

      • The self-esteem of 3rd Generation Asian-Canadians is indistinguishable from European-Canadians. If this result can be generalized, it suggests that three generations is necessary for complete acculturation.

Frame-switching

People maintain multiple self-concepts and switch between them depending on context

• Code-switching - changing your communication to suit cultural context

  • benefit from acting and presenting to other in diff cultures

• Mind forms link between ideas that tend to get activated together

• especially common in bicultural who were born in North America compared to those who immigrated

  • NA bicultural have lifetime of bicultural experiences

• Evidence for Frame-Switching

  • Evidence of frame-switching is clear in language use.

  • Language itself can cue cultural knowledge

  • Hong Kong Chinese participants reported more independent self- construal when the questionnaire was in English, and more interdependent construal in Chinese 

  • Barack Obama the frame-switcher

    • Sometimes act white/black

      • Switching to appear to different crowds 

      • Depending on context, he connects to the audience/ talks differently

bicultural identity integration

the extent to which people see their 2 cultures as compatible or in opposition

• higher bicultural identity integration = frame-switching

• low bicultural identity integration = in A context feel especially B and vice versa

promotion orientation

trying to achieve a positive outcome

prevention orientation

trying to avoid a negative outcome

Are bicultural ppl only ones with multiple knowledge structures that can be primed

Americans could be lead to think like Chinese

situated cognition

• cultural ideas are more information available to all but brought forward differently - existential universals

Third Culture Kids

Children who grow up with their expatriate parents in multiple places outside their heritage culture.

TCK’s tend to learn their heritage cultures from afar - something called remote acculturation.

They tend not to feel strong connections to any of their cultures, but have more of a global identity.

Research on TCK’s is rather new as they’re a difficult sample to study.

They rely more on “marginalization” acculturation strategies.

Feel like a minority wherever they go, and often associate more with other TCK’s. They see themselves as “fish out of water.”

Have trouble answering the question, “where are you from?”

Develop earlier maturity, very international in outlook, score lower in prejudice, are creative, see themselves as “nomads”

Do Multicultural Experiences Foster Creativity?

A key part of creativity is insight -when you see a problem in a novel way.

• Creative insight might be fostered by adjusting to new cultural environments, where you learn to see things differently. Having more than one perspective leads to more creative insights.

• Many famous artists and writers had multicultural experiences.

• In the process of adapting to a new culture, one needs to begin to see things in a new way.

• There can be some particular benefits to learning how to see things differently

  • Once I went (abroad) it was extremely exciting for me to become a new personality, to be detached from everything that bound me, noticing everything that was different. That noticing of difference was very important

  • Douglas Cardinal - “Without any preconceptions, I evolve a design from the inside out, open to all possibilities.”

    • Create buildings that blend into nature

• Creativity of Fashion Designers

  • The fashion industry rates the creativity of different fashion designers each year.

  • This study compared the ratings of the creativity of the designers based on:

    • Breadth (number of foreign countries lived in)

    • Depth (number of years spent abroad)

    • Cultural Distance (how culturally different are the places they’ve lived).

  • Each of these was associated with more creativity (see Godart et al., 2015).

  • Breadth and cultural distance showed a curvilinear relation (meaning that the ideal was a moderate amount of multicultural experience)

perhaps creative people are more likely to move

• ppl with O, E, C, tendency to experience awe seek cross-cultural

• but openness increases when people move

greater psychological richness: the sense that life is filled with interesting and perspective changing experiences (Oishi et al, 2019)

greater trust of others

more belief in moral relativity

• right and wrong is not absolute

• less likely to follow own moral compass and act immorally

integrative complexity

willingness and ability to acknowledge and consider different viewpoints on the same issue

Culturally Diverse Groups

More creativity & better decisions

• Wisdom of crowd: broader reservoir of information

  • A lot of information from different people 

• Shift in perspective

• Antidote against confirmation bias and groupthink

Offer positive contact and cultural role models (contact hypothesis) leading to reductions in prejudice

• Better decisions due to more perspectives

BUT: less social cohesiveness and more prone to conflict

• Positive atmosphere and interactions

  • Most important 

  • Make an effort to create a positive atmosphere 

• Superordinate identity and common goals

  • Something to relate to 

• Clear norms

• Perspective taking

Wisdom of the crowd

1. The group has diversity of opinion

2. Individual opinions are independent of one another

3. The crowd should be able to to aggregate individual opinion into one collective decision

Galton: weight of the ox

• Prediction markets more accurate than expert opinion

• Average judgment converges on the correct solution

• 19th century scientist that created medicine

• One day at a farm farm where you guess the weight of the ox

  • Any single person that makes a guess - not right

  • But average all the opinion and its is a really good guess on the weight

“Herd mentality” is detrimental to wise decisions and creativity and often lead to disastrous group decisions

• Aggregated information yields better and more creative solutions

  • diverse views in a group weaken the confirmation bias, and they combine the best features of different ideas

• Diverse groups of non-experts beat even expert opinion

• Homogenous groups are not wise groups 

  • Not considering different way of looking at the problem 

• May also explain why multicultural people are more creative and innovative

  • In a way they are like a group of different experiences

wisdom of crowd example

Study analyzed 9 million scientific papers and 6 million scientists worldwide

• What predicts scientific paper’s impact 

• How diverse the people were (cultural background/gender)

• How connected the scientist was to people in other cultures 

Homophily: the tendency to associate with culturally similar others

• More common 

More diverse, more impactful

Positive Parasocial Contact: The Salah Effect

Media exposure to celebrities - known as parasocial contact - from perceived outgroups can also reduce prejudice.

• Mo Salah, an elite Egyptian soccer player with a visible Muslim identity, joined Liverpool FC in 2018 until 2026

• Racism and homophobia had been as issue among Liverpool FC fans

• After he joined the club, hate crimes in Liverpool area dropped by 16% and Islamophobic tweets dropped by 50%

• Experimentally, thinking about salah decreased islamophobia attitudes among liverpool fans

Science scores and self-confidence across cultures

How well they are doing on average in science out of 800 and how confident are you in science 

• Opposite of thought: more confident = better scores

• In east asian, their culture makes them more humble and rate lower

• Reference group effect: everyone is doing better, so you think you're not doing as well

• Too confident, so not working as hard

Self-Enhancement

• Self-enhancement is a motivation to focus on and elaborate more about one’s strengths than on one’s weaknesses.

As with most psychological phenomena, it had primarily been studied with Western populations, which suggested the motivation was very pronounced

• Most North Americans possess high self-esteem.

• Most North Americans view themselves in unrealistically positive terms

• Most North Americans use self-esteem maintenance strategies to discount any negative feedback that they might encounter

Is this a basic human need, or is it culturally learned?

• Some evidence for the latter is that the motivation has been increasing over time

• Positive Views Have Been Increasing Over Time in the USA

  • Evidence for cultural learning  cuz how it be changing over time 

  • Generational increase in self-esteem

self-serving bias