BIOL 1710 EXAM 3: CH9-14 condensed BLURTING

fall 2026

Photosynthesis Equation

CO2 + H2O + Light -> Sugar + O2

Stomata

Plant leaf pores for gas exchange (CO2 in, O2 out).

Photosynthesis Reduction

6CO2 reduced to glucose (C6H12O6).

Photosynthesis Oxidation

6H2O oxidized to 6O2.

Autotrophs vs Heterotrophs

Autotrophs make own food via light, and heterotrophs consume others.

Light Reactions Location and Function

Thylakoids, oxidizing water into O2, ATP, and NADPH.

Calvin Cycle Function

Uses ATP, NADPH, and CO2 to build sugar.

Light Waves and Pigments

Short waves mean high energy, while chlorophyll and carotenoids absorb light and protect chloroplasts.

Four Signaling Types

Autocrine, paracrine, endocrine, and direct.

Synaptic Signaling and ACh

Pre-synaptic neurotransmitter release, binding receptors, then enzymatic breakdown.

Drug Agonists and Antagonists

Agonists enhance signaling, whereas antagonists block it (e.g., organophosphates, botulinum toxin).

Nicotine Drug Effect

Low-dose agonist and high-dose antagonist blocking ACh receptors.

Hormones and Neurotransmitters

Hormones travel long distances via blood, while neurotransmitters act locally and short-lived.

Hypothalamus Three Communication Ways

Direct control, direct hormone release (ADH), and indirect regulatory hormones.

Steroid Hormone Characteristics

Hydrophobic, nonpolar, entering cells to bind intracellular receptors (cAMP).

Three Hormone Classes

Amino acid derivatives, polypeptides, and steroids.

Somatic Cells and Gametes

Somatic = di body cells (2n = 46, mito), gametes = haploid sex cells (1n = 23, meiosis).

DNA Packaging and Histones

DNA wraps around histones, becoming visible as chromosomes only during division.

S-Phase Chromosome Math

Starts with 46 chromosomes, ending with 46 chromosomes and 92 chromatids.

Cell Cycle Regulators and Cancer

Cyclins and proto-oncogenes advance the cycle, while mutated oncogenes cause cancer.

Prophase Mitosis

Chromosomes condense and are visible, and the nuclear envelope dissolves.

Metaphase Mitosis

Chromosomes align single file at the metaphase plate.

Anaphase Mitosis

Sister chromatids are pulled apart in disjunction.

Telophase Mitosis

Two nuclei reform and chromosomes decondense.

Meiosis Purpose and Phases

Reduces 2n to 1n, forms tetrads, and creates genetic variation.

Mitosis vs Meiosis Comparison

Mitosis produces 2 identical diploid clones, whereas meiosis produces 4 unique haploid cells.

Effect of Preventing Crossing Over

Lower genetic variability in gametes.

Asexual Reproduction

Produces genetic clones unless mutations occur.

Zygote Development

Fertilized zygote grows exclusively via mitosis.

Genome Definition

Complete complement of an organism's genes.

Mendel Conclusion

Particulate inheritance via discrete units, not blending.

Three to One Phenotypic Ratio Meaning

Indicates heterozygous parents crossed (Aa x Aa).

Codominance Roan Cattle

Roan offspring from red and white cross resulting in a 1 to 2 to 1 ratio.

Unlinked Genes Gametes

Produces gametes with one allele per gene such as HT.

X-Linked Inheritance

Affected father passes X-linked gene to all daughters.

Incomplete Dominance Salamanders

Brown and gold cross yields 100 percent gold-spotted offspring based on a 1 to 2 to 1 ratio.

Recombination Frequencies on Genetic Maps

Greater distance between genes means higher recombination frequency.

Nucleosome Structure

DNA tightly wrapped around histone proteins.

Telomerase Function

Protects and maintains linear chromosome ends.

DNA Replication Mechanics

Semiconservative replication using parental templates and DNA polymerase.