PSYC OF BILINGUALISM EXAM 1

What is bilingualism?

The ability to use/function in two languages. Can vary greatly in proficiency, age of acquisition, language use, and dominance

L1

A person’s first language (language 1)

L2

A person’s second language or an additional language learned (language 2)

Balanced Bilingual

A bilingual who has approximately equal proficiency in their two languages. This does not necessarily mean they are equally proficient in every skill or situation

Dominant Bilingual

A bilingual who is more proficient or uses one language more than the other

Why is bilingualism studied scientifically?

Researchers want to understand how knowing multiple languages affects language processing, memory, cognition, development, and communication

Psycholinguistics

The study of the psychological and cognitive processes involved in language, including how language is understood, produced, stored, and learned

Descriptive/Observational Research

Research that observes and describes behavior without experimentally manipulating variables

Correlational Research

Research that examines whether two or more variables are related

“Correlation Does Not Imply Causation”

If two variables are related, we cannot automatically conclude that one variable caused the other

Experimental Research

Research in which researchers manipulate a variable and measure its effect on another variable

Independent variable

The variable that the researcher changes or manipulates

Dependent variable

The variable that the researcher measures to determine the effect of the IV

Confounding variable

An unwanted variable that could influence the results and provide another explanation for the findings

Between-groups design

Different participants are placed into different groups/conditions

Between = different people

Within-groups design

The same participants complete multiple conditions

Within = same people

Longitudinal Study

A study that follows the same participants over a period of time

Cross-sectional Study

A study that compares different groups at one point in time

Operational Definition

A precise explanation of how a variable will be measured or manipulated

What characteristics of bilingual participants should researchers consider?

Researchers should consider factors such as:

• age of acquisition

• Proficiency

• Language dominance

• Amount of exposure

• Frequency of use

• Language environment cultural/background factors

These differences can affect research results

Early Bilingual

Someone who learned or was exposed to two languages relatively early in life

Late Bilingual

Someone who learned their second language later in life

Active Bilingual

Someone who actively uses both languages

Recessive Bilingual

A bilingual who’s ability in one language has declined or become less accessible

Compound Bilingual Model

Both languages are connected to a shared conceptual system

L1 → CONCEPT ← L2

Coordinate Bilingual Model

The two languages are associated with relatively separate conceptual/semantic systems

L1 → Concept 1

L2 → Concept 2

Subordinate Bilingual Model

L2 is strongly connected to L1, which then connects to the concept

L2 → L1 → CONCEPT

What is the easiest way to remember the three bilingual organization models?

Compound = shared

Coordinate = separate

Subordinate = L2 through L1

Priming

When previous exposure to a stimulus influences how quickly or accurately a person processes a later stimulus

Lexical Decision Task

A task in which participants decide whether a presented item is a real word

HOUSE → Yes

HOUNSE → No

Translation Recognition

A task in which participants determine whether two words are translation equivalents

HOUSE — CASA

Translation Priming

When a word in one language influences the processing of its translation in another language

Semantic Activation

Activation of the meaning/concept associated with a word

Semantic Spreading Activation

Activation spreading from one concept to related concepts

DOG → ANIMAL → PET

What are the major memory systems discussed in bilingual memory research?

1. Sensory memory

2. Working memory

3. Long-term memory

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of sensory information

Working Memory

A limited-capacity system that temporarily holds and processes information

Long-term Memory

A system for storing information over longer periods of time

Long-term Memory

A system for storing information over longer periods of time

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences or specific events

Example: remembering your first day of college

Semantic Memory

Memory for facts, meanings, concepts, and general knowledge

Nondeclarative memory

Memory that involves learned skills or behaviors that do not necessarily require conscious recollection

Example: knowing how to ride a bicycle

Interdependent/Shared bilingual memory system

A system in which the two languages are connected to share conceptual representations

HOUSE → CONCEPT ← CASA

Independent bilingual memory system

A system in which the two languages have more separate representations

Proactive inhibition

When previously learned information interferes with learning or remembering new information

OLD information → interferes with → NEW information

Release from Proactive Inhibition

A reduction in interference when an important feature of the information changes. For bilinguals, changing languages can reduce interference

English → English = more interference

English → Spanish = possible release

What is the difference between within-language and between-language conditions?

Within language : English → English

Between language : English → Spanish

Bilingual Dual Coding Theory

It proposes separate verbal systems for L1 and L2 that are interconnected through a language-free imagery system

L1 ←→ IMAGE ←→ L2

Why is imagery important in Bilingual Dual Coding Theory?

Images can provide a nonverbal connection between the two language systems and can support memory for information

Word Association Model

L1 and L2 words are directly associated with each other

HOUSE ← → CASA

Concept Mediation Model

Both languages connect to a shared conceptual representation

HOUSE → CONCEPT → CASA

What is the major difference between Word Association and Concept Medistion?

Word Association:

Word ← → Word

Concept Mediation:

Word → Concept → Word

Revised Hierarchical Model RHM

A model proposing that bilinguals have separate L1 and L2 lexical representations connected to a shared conceptual system, with connection between the two lexical systems

Why is the L2 → L1 connection stronger?

Because L2 learners often learn new L2 words by connecting them to already known L1 words

According to the RHM, which translation direction should generally be faster?

L2 → L1 should be faster than L1 → L2 because the L2 to L1 lexical connection is stronger

Distributed Conceptual Feature Model

A model in which concepts are represented through multiple distributed features rather than one single representation

Bilingual Interactive Activation Model

A connectionist model in which representations interact through networks of activation, allowing information from both languages to influence processing

Phonology

The study of the sounds associated with language

Morphology

The study of meaningful units or parts of words

Un + Happy

Semantics

The study of meaning

Syntax

The rules governing how words are organized into sentences

Sentence structure

Pragmatics

How context affects the meaning and interpretation of language

What are the five major levels of language analysis?

Phonology = sounds

Morphology = word parts

Semantics = meaning

Syntax = sentence structure

Pragmatics = context

Language-selective processing

The idea that primarily the target language is activated during processing

Language non-selective processing

The idea that both of a bilinguals languages can becomes activated, even when only one language is being used.

How can you remember selective vs. nonselective processing?

Selective = one language

Nonselective = both languages can activate

Homophone

A word that sounds the same as another word but may have a different spelling and meaning

Paws/Pause

Homograph

A word that has the same spelling as another word but can have a different meaning

Bat = animal

Bat = sports equipment

Internal homograph

A word form that is the same or similar across two languages but has different meanings

What is eye tracking used for in psycholinguistics research?

Measuring eye movements to study language processing as it happens

It can provide information about:

• what people look at

• How long they look

• When processing difficulties occur

• How words/sentences are processed

Input Hypothesis

The idea that language development is strongly influenced by the linguistic input a learner receives

For bilinguals, researchers can consider how much and what type of L1 and L2 input they receive

Why is context important in bilingual language processing?

The meaning of language can depend on the surrounding situation, previous information, speaker culture, and conversational context

Figurative Language

Language in which the intended meaning is different from the literal meaning

Example: “I’m drowning in homework”

Why can figurative language be challenging for bilinguals?

Figurative meanings may depend heavily on language-specific context, cultural knowledge, and experience with the language

What is code-switching?

Switching between two languages during communication.

It can be influenced by the conversation situation, speaker, topic, or social context

Critical Period Hypothesis

The hypothesis that there is a period during development when language acquisition is especially effective, with later acquisition generally making native-like proficiency more difficult

What relationship does the Critical Period Hypothesis focus on?

The relationship between:

Age of acquisition → ultimate language proficiency

What does the Critical Period Hypothesis generally predict?

Earlier acquisition → greater potential for native-like proficiency

Later acquisition → greater difficulty achieving native-like proficiency

Experimental vs Correlational research

Experimental: manipulates a variable → can examine cause/effect

Correlational: measures relationships→ cannot establish causation

IV vs DV

IV : manipulated

DV : measured

Between-groups vs. within-groups

Between = different participants

Within = same participants

Compound vs coordinate vs subordinate

Compound : shared conceptual system

Coordinate : separate conceptual systems

Subordinate : L2 → L1 → concept

Word association vs concept mediation

Word association :

L1 ← → L2

Concept mediation :

L1 → Concept ← L2

Word Association vs. Revised Hierarchical Model

Word association : emphasizes direct lexical connections between L1 and L2

RHM: includes lexical connections and connections from both languages to a shared conceptual system, with an important asymmetry between L1 and L2 connections

L1 → L2 vs L2 → L1 translation in the RHM

L2 → L1 = stronger / faster

L1 → L2 = weaker / slower

Language-selective vs language-nonselective processing

Selective : primarily target language activated

Nonselective : both languages can become activated

Homophones vs homographs

Homophones = same sound

Homographs = same spelling

Semantics vs syntax vs Pragmatics

Semantics = meaning

Syntax = sentence structure

Pragmatics = meaning in context