A & P Exam #2

Ch. 4,5 & 6!

Metabolism

 The sum of all chemical reactions in the body.

Cellular metabolism

sum of all chemical reactions occurring in a cell; metabolic reactions usually occur in pathways or cycles.

anabolism and catabolism

What are the two types of cellular metabolism?

Anabolism

builds molecules; requires energy.

Dehydration synthesis

a chemical reaction that joins two small molecules together to form a larger molecule by removing a water molecule.

H atom ; OH- atom ; H2O

In anabolism, the ___ ___ and ____ ____ are removed. Then ______ is made in the process.

polysaccharides , proteins , and triglycerides.

Anabolism is used to produce _______, _________, and _________.

Catabolism

breaks down molecules; releases energy.

Hydrolysis

a process that breaks down carbs, triglycerides, proteins, and nucleic acids, and splits a water molecule in the process.

H2O

Catabolism uses _____ to split a substance.

carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

Catabolism is used to decompose ________, _______, _______.

cells

All ______ perform catabolic and anabolic reactions.

Intermediary Metabolism

the process that obtain, release, and use energy.

Primary Metabolites

products of metabolism essential for survival.

Secondary Metabolites

not essential for survival, but may provide an advantage or enhancement.

energy

All metabolic reactions require _______.

Enzymes

proteins that catalyze specific reactions.

increase

Enzymes _____ the rate of chemical reations.

lower

Enzymes _____ the activation energy necessary to start reactions.

enzyme ; substrate

Each ______ is specific for a certain ________.

active site ; substrate ; not

The ____ ____ of enzymes binds with the ______, they are ____ consumed in the reaction.

-ase

Most enzymes have the suffix of ______.

Metabolic Pathways

_______ ________ are series of enzyme- controlled reactions.

product

Because of metabolic pathways, each new substrate is a _______ of the previous reaction.

catalyzed ; enzyme

In metabolic pathways, each step of the pathways is _______ by a different _______.

Rate- Limiting enzymes

These regulate metabolic pathways/ the reaction rate.

limited

In Rate-limiting enzymes, the number of molecules of this enzyme is ________.

first enzyme

Rate limiting enzymes are often the ____ _____ in the reaction sequence.

negative feedback

In some pathways, the end product inhibits rate-limiting enzymes; this is an example of ______ _____.

cofactor

chemical groups added to enzymes that are necessary for function.

ions, elements, small organic molecule (coenzyme)

Cofactors can be _____, _____, or ____ ____ _____.

Coenzyme

organic molecule that acts as cofactor.

vitamins

Most coenzymes are _____, these are essential organic moleules that humans need from their diet.

Denaturation

irreversible change in enzyme conformation.

radiation; heat; pH values ; electricity; particular chemicals.

Denaturation can be caused by ______, excess _____ exposure, extreme ___ ____, ______ or ______ _______.

unable ; inactive

Denaturation results in enzymes being ____ to bind to substrates, they become ______.

energy

 capacity to produce change or to work.

heat, light, sound, electrical energy, mechanical energy, chemical energy.

Forms of energy include…

created ; destroyed ; changed

Energy cannot be _____ or ______, but can be _____ from one form to another.

chemical energy

Most metabolic reactions use _____ _____.

released ; broken

Energy is _______ when chemical bonds are _____.

oxidation

releases energy from glucose.

cellular respiration

_____ _____ reactions use and release chemical energy.

cytoplasmic enzymes ; mitochondria

Oxidation is controlled by ______ _____ and ________.

ATP

Energy is transferred to _____.

40%; chemical energy ; 60% ; heat

When energy is transferred to ATP, ____% is released as _____ _____ ; ____% is released as ______.

ATP Molecules

Main energy- carrying molecule in the cell.

Adenine, ribose (sugar), and 3 phosphates in a chain.

There are 3 parts of ATP molecules, these are..

second and third ; high energy

In ATP molecules, the _____ and _____ phosphates are attached by ____-_____ bonds.

released ; (ADP) Adenosine diphosphate

When ATP loses terminal phosphate, energy is _______ and it becomes ________ ______.

attaching a third phosphate; called phosphorylation (requires energy from cellular respiration).

ADP can be converted back into ATP by….

Cellular respiration

transfers energy from glucose molecules to make it available for cellular use.

Anaerobic and aerobic reactions

There are two types of cellular reactions, these are…

anaerobic reaction

do not require O2, make little ATP (glycolysis)

aerobic reactions

require O2, make most of ATP (citric acid cycle and electron transport chain)

Citric acid cycle

a series of chemical reactions that living cells use to release stored energy from food.

mitochondria

Where does the citric acid cycle take place?

Electron transport chain

a series of protein complexes and molecules that pass electrons from one to another to help create chemical energy for the cell.

mitochondria

Where does the electron transport chain take place?

Glycolysis

“the breaking down of glucose” The 6 carbon sugar glucose breaks down the cytosol into two 3 carbon pyruvic acid molecules with a net gain of two ATP and the release of hydrogen atoms with high energy electrons.

cytosol

Glycolysis takes place in the _____

not ; anaerobic

Glycolosis does ____ require oxygen, it is the _____ phase of cellular respiration.

catabolic pathways ; energy

carbohydrate molecules from food may enter _____ ______and be used to supply _____.

anabolic pathways ; stored ; react

Carbohydrates may enter _____ ______ and be _____or ______ to form some of the different amino acids.

genetic information

Passed from parents to offspring in the form of DNA molecules when the sperm fertilizes the egg.

Gene

a sequence of nucleotide bases along one DNA strand that contains the information for a particular protein's amino acid sequence.

Genome

the complex set of genetic instructions in a cell, including the genes as well as other DNA sequences.

5-carbon sugars, a phosphate group, and one nitrogenous base.

A nucleotide consists of …

two polynucleotide chains that twist and form a double helix.

A DNA molecule is double stranded, consisting of ..

adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine.

What are the four nitrogenous bases?

purines ; two organic ring

A&G are _____ and consist of ____ ____ ___ structures.

pyrimidines ; single organic ring

T&C are ______ and they have a ____ _____ ____ structure.

histones

DNA double helix is wound around proteins called _____ clustered in groups of 8 to form chromatin.

DNA replication

the process that creates an exact copy of a DNA molecule.

interphase

DNA replication happens during ______ of the cell cycle.

Transcription

the process of copying DNA information into an RNA sequence.

A

In RNA U pairs with ____.

nucleus

Transcription occurs in the _____.

Translation

The mRNA is translated from the "language" of nucleic acids to the “language” of amino acids.

cytoplasm

Translation occurs in the _______.

Codons

each amino acid in a protein is specified by a series of three bases in DNA and then by a series of three bases in mRNA. 

Mutations

errors in DNA replication.

Missense mutation

a mutation that replaces one type of amino acid with a different kind.

Nonsense mutation

a mutation that changes an amino acid-encoding protein.

mutagen

a physical or chemical agent that changes an organism's genetic material.

DNA repair

restores the original DNA sequence.

200 ; four

____ types of human body cells classified into ___ types of tissues.

Tissue

Composed of specialized cells of similar structure and perform a common function.

Histology

Study of Tissues.

epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous.

What are the four categories of tissues?

organs

_____ are typically composed of all four types of tissue.

Intercellular junctions

these connect the cell membranes of adjoining cells.

Tight junctions

close space between cells by fusing cell membranes.

cells in the small intestine

What is an example of tight junctions?

Desmosomes

bind cells by forming “spot welds” between cell membranes. 

Cells in the outer skin layer

What is an example of desosomes?

Gap junctions

form tubular channels between cells that allow exchange of substances.

muscle cells of the heart and digestive tract

What is an example of gap junctions?