Scientific Paradigm

What is a scientific "paradigm" according to Thomas Kuhn?

A shared set of practices, beliefs, values, and standards that define a scientific discipline at a particular time, dictating what problems are valid to investigate and how they should be solved (normal science).

What is the scientific method?

The scientific method is a systematic procedure for acquiring scientific knowledge through observations, hypotheses, predictions, experiments and analysis of evidence.

What is a conclusion?

A conclusion is a statement derived from premises through reasoning.

What is formal logic?

Formal logic studies deductive inferences and whether conclusions necessarily follow from their premises.

What is informal logic?

Informal logic studies inductive inferences and how evidence supports a conclusion.

What is the main difference between formal and informal logic?

Formal logic focuses on whether an argument is valid or invalid, while informal logic considers whether evidence makes a conclusion probable and how strong the reasoning is.

What type of reasoning is associated with formal logic?

Deductive reasoning.

What type of reasoning is associated with informal logic?

Inductive reasoning.

What is validity?

Validity refers to the quality of being factually sound or measuring and assessing what is intended.

Who formulated the concept of validity?

Kelly 1927

when is a test valid?

When it measures what it claims to measure.

What are the 4 aspects of validity to consider in science?

The validity of observations, the sample, the logic and the argument.

What makes an observation valid?

It should be precise and accurate.

What makes a sample valid?

It should be unbiased and objective, and it should adequately represent the population or observations being investigated.

How is the validity of deductive logic assessed?

By determining whether the reasoning is valid or invalid.

How is the strength of inductive logic assessed?

By examining the size and quality of the sample and the amount and quality of supporting evidence.

How is a deductive argument assessed?

It is assessed as sound or unsound.

How is an inductive argument assessed?

It is assessed in terms of reliability or unreliability, based on the strength of its evidence and reasoning.

What is induction?

Induction is a method of reasoning in which specific observations or facts are used to suggest a general rule, hypothesis or conclusion.

What does inductive reasoning identify?

Patterns and similarities among individual observations.

What is the main purpose of induction in science?

To suggest hypotheses, general laws or modifications to existing explanations that can then be tested.

What does inductive reasoning end with in the scientific method?

A proposed hypothesis or generalization.

What is an inductive premise?

A statement based on observations of a limited number of similar objects or events.

What is an inductive conclusion?

A general statement inferred from the observed sample and extended to a larger group or all similar cases.

What is an inductive leap?

The jump from a limited number of specific observations to a general conclusion about all similar cases.

Why is an inductive leap not logically guaranteed?

Because observations of some cases cannot guarantee that the same pattern applies to every case.

What 3 conditions should be met for a generalization to be considered reliable?

There should be a large number of observations, observations should be repeated under a wide variety of conditions, and no observation should conflict with the proposed universal law.

Does induction alone guarantee that a conclusion is true?

No. Induction provides evidence for a conclusion, but the conclusion may still be false.

Why can an inductive argument be reasonable but unreliable?

Its premises may be based on genuine observations, but the sample may be too small or unrepresentative to justify the broad conclusion.

What are the 3 criteria when assessing an inductive argument?

The strength of the logic, the acceptability of the premises and whether the conclusion follows from the data.

What is deduction?

Deduction is a method of reasoning in which a general law or principle is applied to a specific case to derive a conclusion that necessarily follows if the premises are true and the reasoning is valid.

What is the main purpose of deduction in science?

To derive testable predictions, establish or examine null hypotheses, test theories and apply general principles to specific situations.

Does deduction usually create new theories by itself?

No, deduction is primarily a way to test and apply theories rather than generate new ones.

What must be true for a deductive conclusion to be sound?

The argument must be valid, and all its premises must be true.

What is a valid deductive argument?

premise is true & conclusion is true

What is a sound deductive argument?

A deductive argument that is valid and has only true premises.

What is an unsound deductive argument?

A deductive argument that is invalid, has at least one false premise, or both.

Can a deductive argument be valid if a premise is false?

Yes. Validity concerns the logical structure of the argument, not whether the premises are factually true.

Can a valid deductive argument have an unsound conclusion?

Yes. If a premise is false, the argument may be valid in structure but unsound overall.

What is a fallacy?

A fallacy is an error in reasoning that makes an argument misleading or logically defective.

Which form of reasoning proposes hypotheses?

Induction

Which form of reasoning tests hypotheses?

Deduction.

Which form of reasoning provides conclusions that necessarily follow from true premises and valid logic?

Deduction.

What is the relationship between induction and deduction in the scientific method?

Induction helps generate a hypothesis from observations. Deduction derives predictions from that hypothesis, which are tested through experiments. The results then provide evidence for revising or retaining the hypothesis.

What is a scientific theory?

A scientific theory is an explanation of a phenomenon that has received substantial support through repeated testing and evidence.

How does a hypothesis relate to a theory?

A hypothesis is a proposed explanation that can be tested. When a hypothesis or group of hypotheses receives sufficient support through repeated testing, it may contribute to an accepted scientific theory.

What is a scientific law?

A scientific law is a general statement based on repeated observations that describes a regularity or relationship in the natural world.

How does a scientific law differ from a scientific theory?

A law describes a pattern or relationship, while a theory explains why or how a phenomenon occurs.

What is a scientific fact?

A scientific fact is an observation that has been repeatedly confirmed and is accepted as true, although it is not considered permanently beyond revision.

What is a hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a proposed, testable explanation of observations or a reasonable answer to a scientific question.

What does it mean for a hypothesis to be self-consistent?

Its claims should not contradict one another.

What is a null hypothesis?

A null hypothesis states that there is no relationship between 2 measured phenomena or no association between groups.It provides a specific claim that can be tested against evidence to determine whether there are grounds for rejecting the assumption of no relationship or effect.

What are the 6 main steps of the scientific method ?

• Observation or prior concept.

• Question.

• Hypothesis.

• Prediction.

• Experiment.

• Data analysis and revision of the hypothesis as needed.

What is the purpose of an experiment?

An experiment tests the prediction under specified conditions and generates evidence relevant to the hypothesis.

What happens during data analysis?

The results are examined and compared with the prediction to determine whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected and whether revision is needed.

What is an independent variable?

he independent variable is the factor that the scientist deliberately changes or compares to investigate its effect.

What is a dependent variable?

The dependent variable is the outcome measured to determine whether it changes in response to the independent variable.

What is a control in an experiment?

A control is a comparison condition or reference used to help determine whether the experimental treatment produces an effect.