Chapter 8: Learning Practice Test Review

Vocabulary flashcards covering key definitions, principles, schedules of reinforcement, and theorists from Chapter 8 (Learning) practice tests.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in the behavior of an organism due to experience.

Operant Conditioning

A type of associative learning associated with B.F. Skinner in which behaviors operate on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.

Classical Conditioning

A form of associative learning associated with Ivan Pavlov where an organism learns an association between stimuli, causing reflexive responses to be automatically triggered by preceding stimuli.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers an unlearned, involuntary response (such as the meat in Pavlov's experiments, or a loud noise in Watson and Rayner's study).

Unconditioned Response (UR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus (such as salivation to meat in Pavlov's experiment, or crying in response to a frightening sound).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

An originally neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral, but now conditioned, stimulus.

Optimal CS-US Timing

For the most rapid conditioning, the conditioned stimulus (CS) should be presented about one-half second before the unconditioned stimulus (US).

Discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus or reinforcement (such as learning to press a lever to a $1000\text{-Hz}$ tone but not to a $1200\text{-Hz}$ tone).

Generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke a conditioned response (such as avoiding green cars after having a bad experience with a blue car).

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response that occurs when the unconditioned stimulus (US) is omitted after the conditioned stimulus (CS) is presented.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response following the extinction of the CR and a subsequent rest period.

Continuous Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule where each and every correct response is reinforced; under this schedule, the learning of a new behavior proceeds most rapidly.

Intermittent (Partial) Reinforcement

A schedule in which responses are reinforced only some of the time, producing the greatest resistance to extinction compared to continuous schedules.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified, unchanging number of responses (e.g., piecework or commission paid per unit sold).

Variable-Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that provides reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses; it produces the highest and most consistent rate of response (e.g., a slot machine).

Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that reinforces the first response after a set, fixed amount of time has elapsed (e.g., an exam every third week, searching more frequently for mail as delivery time nears, or receiving a paycheck every two weeks).

Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule in which responses are reinforced after an unpredictable and varying amount of time.

Positive Reinforcement

The presentation of a desired or positive stimulus following a response in order to strengthen or increase the frequency of that behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

The termination or removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus after a response, which increases the likelihood that the response will recur (e.g., putting on a coat to remove coldness, or taking out garbage to stop pestering).

Punishment

The presentation of an aversive stimulus (or suppression of a behavior) that decreases the likelihood of a preceding behavior; it is controversial because the behavior is not forgotten, it can create fear, and it may increase aggressiveness.

Primary Reinforcer

An innately reinforcing stimulus that satisfies a biological need.

Conditioned (Secondary) Reinforcer

An acquired reinforcer that gains its reinforcing power through its learned association with a primary reinforcer (e.g., an approving nod from a boss, money, or television privileges).

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure of establishing a new behavior by reinforcing closer and closer successive approximations of the desired behavior.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the physical layout of one's environment.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without an obvious reinforcement and becomes apparent only after reinforcement is provided (e.g., a rat navigating a maze with few errors once food is introduced).

Observational Learning

Learning by observing and imitating the behaviors of others; Albert Bandura is the researcher best known for studying this type of learning.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons located in the frontal lobe of the brain that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another person performing the same task; believed to provide the neural basis for observational learning.

Intrinsic Motivation

The motivation or desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake rather than for an external incentive.

Extrinsic Motivation

The desire to perform a behavior in order to obtain promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment.

Taste-Aversion Learning

A biological predisposition, demonstrated in studies by Garcia and Koelling, where animals readily associate the taste of tainted food with sickness, showing that the unconditioned stimulus does not need to follow the conditioned stimulus immediately.

Predictability of an Association

A cognitive factor in classical conditioning demonstrated by Rescorla and Wagner, establishing that conditioning occurs when an animal learns how reliably a CS predicts a US.

Biological Predispositions

The biological tendencies of an animal to learn associations that are naturally adaptive to its survival (e.g., pigeons easily learn to flap wings to escape aversive shock, but use beaks to obtain food).