Biological Psychology Exam 1 Content

Ramon Y Cajal

Used the golgi stain to support the neuron doctrine.

Philosophy of Descartes

Analogy of flow of fluids in a hydraulic system where spirits flowed through the tubes of the physical body, no tangible mind.

Phrenology

A pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits, Franz Gall.

Holism

The proposition that specific functions are controlled by several collaborating brain areas.

Localism

The idea that one brain area is responsible for a particular output.

Helmholtz

Measured the speed of electricity in nerves using frogs.

Wundt

Established the first psychology lab, studied sensation, perception, reaction time, how the human mind and behavior coordinates.

Animal Model

A species used to approximate or mimic a biological, behavioral, or disease to better understand it.

Krogh’s Principle

“For a large number of problems, there will be some animal of choice, or a few such animals, on which it can be most conveniently studied,” This is important because there is some model organism that may be best fit to study a particular research question.

3 R’s of Animal Research

Replacement, Reduction, Refinement.

IACUC

Reviews all animal research protocols, written/reported concerns, and sets policies on animal use and care.

Golgi Stains

Use substances like silver chromate to show the structure or morphology of neurons.

Nissl Stains

Stains grey matter (dendrites, glial cells, etc.)

Myelin Stains

Stains white matter (axons).

Anterograde Tracing

Injects into cell bodies to trace toward terminals, travels forwards, usually goes back to 2nd order neurons.

Retrograde Tracing

Injects into terminals to trace back to the cell body, traces back to cell body.

Dual Tracing

Anterograde tracing but trying to distinguish between endpoints, looks at multiple areas.

Light Microscopes

Produce good images, can see various parts of the cell but is limited due to the nature of light. Allows researchers to see cell bodies, dendrites, axons, large organelles in neurons.

Electron Microscopes

Produces better images, passes beams of electrons pass through a thin slice of tissue creating a high resolution image. magnifies objects up to 250,000x.

Scanning Electron Microscope

Can see in 3D.

Confocal Microscope

Produces glowing cell pictures by using scanning lasers to generate high resolution fluorescent images with depth.

2 Photon Microscope

Produces glowing cell pictures by using fluorescent imaging in live cells/tissues.

Stereotaxic Atlas

Shows the location of key structures on images of a series of brain sections, like a map.

Stereotaxic Instrument

Tool that places electrodes or other devices in a precise location.

Types of Stereotaxic Procedures

Lesions and ablations, stimulation, injections, microdialysis.

Stereotaxic Procedures: Lesions & Ablations

Removal or damage of a specific brain area.

Stereotaxic Procedures: Stimulation

Electrically stimulates a specific area of the brain.

Stereotaxic Procedures: Injections

Injects chemicals through an implanted cannula.

Stereotaxic Procedures: Microdialysis

Extracts CSF and analyzes chemicals.

Neuronal Electrophysiology

A stereotaxic procedure that uses a probe in the brain to measure action potentials and visualize data on a computer screen to see how cells in the brain are firing during a certain behavior.

Neuronal Electrophysiology: Intracellular

Ex: Patch-clamp.

Neuronal Electrophysiology: Extracellular

Ex: Single-unit, multi-unit, field potentials.

Calcium Imaging

A stereotaxic procedure that measures calcium indicators in the brain, which fluoresce when neurons are active.

GCaMP

A genetically encoded calmodulin protein.

All of the following are methods of directly manipulating brain activity except:

E. Brain cooling

F. Calcium imaging

G. Optogenetics

H. Chemogenetics

Calcium Imaging

Calcium influx leads to ___.

Action Potential.

Manipulating Brain Cells: Optogenetics

Injects opsin genes to control specific cells, shins a light on the correct cells to turn on or off, confirms changes in behavior with electrophysiology, scalable control.

Manipulating Brain Cells: Chemogenetics

Injects synthetic ligands into genes that will alter the expression of the gene of interest through receptor activation, highly specific, DREADDs.

DREADDS

Designer receptor exclusively activated by designer drugs.

Transcranial Stimulation

Magnetic stimulation to create lesions without damage to either excite or inhibit areas of the brain to study.

Repetitive Transcranial Magnet Stimulation (rTMS)

Pulses of magnetic stimulation create temporary reversible lesions without damage to briefly inactivate the brain for study.

Cooling the Brain

Used in epilepsy patients to slow brain activity.

Lesions

Do not cause damage and are reversible and non-invasive.

Structural Neuroimaging

CT/CAT, MRI

EEG has better temporal resolution than PET imaging.

True.

CT/CAT Scan

computer-assisted tomography, Computerized axial tomography. injects dye into blood, creates a series of x-rays from different angles, images reflect the density of blood vessels in each area. used to detect brain bleeding, brain damage, skull fractures, brain tumors, etc.

MRI

Magnetic resonance imaging. Scans by measuring radio-frequency waves emitted by the hydrogen atoms when they are subjected to a strong magnetic field. provides a more detailed view of the brain in 3D. fast, inexpensive, portable.

PET Scan

Positron emission tomography. Injects a radioactive solution (Ex: glucose 2DG) into blood taken up by parts of the brain according to how active they are based on what you are doing.

fMRI

Functional magnetic resonance imaging. Provides images of brain structure and activity, structure is imaged using waves emitted by hydrogen ions, function is imaged using signal created from the interaction between oxygen and iron in the blood, BOLD signal. Provides better temporal resolution because it is “functional.”

EEG

Electroencephalogram. attaches electrodes to the scalp, measures the gross electrical activity of the brain (combined activity from many neurons), good temporal resolution, poor spatial resolution, best detects changes in arousal, epilepsy, sleep research.

Evoked Potential

Uses a computer to average the EEG over several stimulus presentations, cancels out the “noise” of the brain’s other activities leaving only the response from the stimulus.

Spatial Resolution

Where the structure is.

Temporal Resolution

Demonstrates time.

EEG has better spatial resolution than fMRI.

False.

PET imaging has better spatial resolution than electron

microscopy

False.

fMRI has better temporal resolution than MRI.

True.

Functional Neuroimaging

PET, fMRI, EEG

Measure

Studying brain activity or taking a snapshot of neural activity as it is occurring.

Manipulate

Directly altering brain activity to determine the effects.

Which subdivision of the Peripheral Nervous System is referred to as “fight or flight”?

Sympathetic Nervous System.

Dorsal Root

Where sensory information enters through the spinal cord.

Ventral Root

Where motor impulses leave the spinal cord.

Tract

A bundle of axons traveling together in the CNS.

Nucleus

A group of cell bodies in the CNS.

Anterior

Rostral.

Posterior

Caudal.

Nerve

A bundle of axons traveling together in the PNS.

Ganglion

A group of cell bodies in the PNS.

Hindbrain

Medulla oblongata, pons, reticular formation, cerebellum. Central core, basic bodily functions.

Hindbrain: Medulla

Breathing, blood pressure, heartbeat.

Hindbrain: Pons

Provides input to other brain structures and cerebellum, maintains sleep/wake cycles.

Hindbrain: Reticular Formation

Dense network of nerve cells that arouse the brain to new stimulation, alerts cortical and other brain regions in response to incoming info.

Hindbrain: Cerebellum

Coordinates movement and posture, maintains equilibrium, suggested involvement in learning.

2 Major Dopaminergic Areas

Substantia Nigra, Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA).

Brain Stem

Medulla oblongata, pons, reticular formation.

Midbrain

Tectum (superior and inferior colliculi), substantia nigra, VTA. Dopamine pathways for sensory information.

Forebrain

Cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus. Consists of 2 cerebral hemispheres.

Cerebral Cortex

Outer portion of the forebrain.

Limbic System/Subcortical Regions

Thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, amygdala, hippocampus.

Limbic System: Thalamus

Relays info from sensory receptors to the brain.

Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN)

Receives visual information from the thalamus.

Medial Geniculate Nucleus (MGN)

Receives auditory info from the thalamus.

Limbic System: Hypothalamus

Influences motivated behavior, regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and libido.

Limbic System: Basal Ganglia

Planning, motor movement, comprised of various nuclei.

Limbic System: Amygdala

Emotional valence, formation of emotions and memories, activates fear responses and emotional hijacking.

Limbic System: Hippocampus

Formation of memories.

Blood-Brain Barrier

Tightly packed blood vessel walls to prevent entry of molecules into the brain.

What structures protect the brain?

Skull, meninges, CSF, blood-brain barrier.

Major Reward System (Implicated in Addiction)

Nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle, ventral tegmental area.

Dura Mater

Outer layer of the meninges, thick sac that holds brain together and touches the skull.

Arachnoid Membrane

Web-like membrane that allows blood vessels and nerves to come in

Pia Mater

Thin layer that hugs every contour around the brain.

Functions of CSF

Shock absorber, filters waste, provides nutrients to neurons.

Gryus/Gyri

Ridges or elevations in the brain.

Sulcus/Sulci

Groove between 2 gyri.

Fissure

A large sulcus.

2 Key Landmarks of the Cerebral Cortex

Central Sulcus, Lateral Fissure.

Parietal Lobe

Located directly behind the central sulcus, receives sensory info, involved in spatial abilities.

Frontal Lobe

Located in front of the central sulcus, coordinates info from other lobes, motor control, cognitive activities (Ex: planning, decision making, attention, expression of emotions, goal setting).

Occipital Lobe

Final destination for visual info processing.