Exam 2- Methods

Naturalistic observation

Noninvasive observation of individuals in their natural environments. Requires a coding scheme to categorize the exhibited behaviors of the participants.

Survey/Questionaries

A research study that uses the survey observational technique to measure behavior.

Interviews

Direct questioning of individuals about their behaviors and attitudes.

Systematic observations

Control is exerted over the conditions under which the behavior is observed.

Archival data

Involves analysis of preexisting data.

Content analysis

An archival data collection technique that involves analysis of the content of an individual’s spoken or written record.

Observing to see how many people wash or don’t wash their hands after using the bathroom. What data collection technique is used?

Naturalistic observation

A student need to find students to answer her form about their experience with rural area mental health support. What data technique is used?

Survey/Questionnaires

A researcher ask the participants to come into the office so they can learn more about their responses they put in the form. What data technique is used?

Interviews

A researcher wants to learn how a young child shares their toys during playtime. What data technique is used?

Systematic observations

A researcher is wanting to know if the music vibe is based on the state of the world. What data technique is used?

Archival data

A researcher is wanting to know if reading positive or negative news change how people write about the future. What data technique is used?

Content analysis

Operational definition

The definition of an abstract concept used by a researcher to measure or manipulate the concept in a research study.

Internal validity

The degree to which a study provides causal information about behavior. The change in the outcome is caused by the manipulated variable and not by other factors.

External validity

The degree to which the results of a study apply to individuals and realistic behaviors outside the study. Results of a study that applies to real life outside of the test setting.

Reliability

To which the results of a study can be replicated under similar conditions.

Case study

Involves intensive study of particular individuals and their behaviors.

A researcher is looking into the zodiac killers childhood history to determine what could have triggered his present self. What research design is used?

Case study

Correlational study

Examines the relationships between multiple dependent variables, without manipulating any of the variables.

They are wanting to study the relationship between students stress level with their academic performance. What research design is used?

Correlational study

Quasi-experiments

A type of research design where a comparison is made, as in an experiment, but no random assignment of participants to groups occurs.

A researcher wants to test if a new math curriculum improves test scores. What research design is used?

Quasi-experiment

Experiements

Involves manipulation of an independent variable, allowing control of extraneous variables that could affect the results.

Researchers are wanting to know if a new medicine reduces symptoms of depression. What research design is used?

Experiments

Is correlation not necessarily causation? (T/F)

True

Positive correlation

Variables related in the same direction.

Negative correlation

Variables related in the opposite direction.

Independent variable

Manipulated by experiments

Dependent variable

What we think will be affected by manipulating IV.

Nominal scales

Measurement that involves nonordered categorical responses.

Examples of nominal scales

Gender, race, what school you attend, favorite foods

Ordinal scales

Measurement that involves ordered categorical responses.

Examples of ordinal scale

Education levels, Likert scales, pain scale, or competition races

Interval scales

Involves numerical responses that are equally spaced, but with scores that are not ratios of each other.

Examples of interval scales

Temperature (C & F), IQ scores, SAT scores, or calendar years

Ratio scales

Involves numerical responses, where scores are ratios of each other.

Examples of ratio scales

Reaction times, amount of money spent, weight, or time spent on social media apps

Presence/absence (bivalent)

A variable that involves a manipulation with a level that involves the treatment and a level that does not involve the treatment.

Examples of presence/absence variables

Drug/no drug, therapy/no therapy, training/no training

Type variable

A variable that involves a manipulation of types of a treatment

Examples of type variables

Tylenol vs. Bayer, CBT vs. Exposure, Positive feedback vs. Negative feedback, sad music vs. happy music, male vs. female experimenter

Amount variable

A variable that includes levels with a different amount of the treatment changing from level to level

Examples of amount variable

Amount of drug, number of therapy sessions, amount of training, attractiveness of confederate

Quasi-independent variable

A variable that allows comparison of groups of participants without manipulation (i.e., no random assignment); sometimes called a subject variable

Examples of quasi-independent variables

Demographics, abused as child vs. no abuse, Target vs. Walmart shoppers, organ donors vs. non-donors

Hawthorne effect

A source of bias that can occur in a study due to participants changing their behavior because they are aware that they are being observed.

Social desirability

Bias created in survey responses from respondents’ desire to be viewed more favorably by others, typically resulting in over reporting of “positive” behaviors and underreporting of “negative” behaviors.

Is there such a thing as a perfect study?

No there is not. every study has some type of error.

Sampling error

The difference between the observation in a population and in the sample that represents that population in a study.

What are the ways to reduce sampling errors?

Using probability samples; Using convenience or purposive samples

Simple random samples

Sample chosen randomly from the population such that each individual has an equal chance of being selected.

What are the limitations for simple random samples?

Impractical for large populations

Cluster samples

Sample chosen randomly from clusters identified in the population.

What are the limitations of a cluster sampling?

May not be fully representative

Stratified random samples

Sample chosen from the population such that the proportion of individuals with a particular characteristic is equivalent in the population and the sample.

Example of a stratified random sample

Race in the U.S. & religion

Convenience samples (purposive sample)

Sample chosen such that the probability of an individual being chosen cannot be determined

What are the limitations to convenience samples?

Difficult to generalize results lowering external validity

Volunteer samples (haphazard)

Sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen based on who volunteers to participate

What are the limitations to volunteer samples?

Less generalizability of results

Quota samples

Sample chosen from the population such that available individuals are chosen with equivalent proportions of individuals for a specific characteristic in the population and sample.

Snowball samples

Sample where past participants recommend future participants from the same population.

What are the disadvantages of snowball samples?

Biased sample, may not represent whole population.

What is MTURK and Prolific?

A amazon website where researchers can get a large group participants for a study and participants can get paid doing the studies.

Descriptive statistics

Measures that help summarize data sets

Inferential statistics

A set of statistical procedures used by researchers to test hypotheses about populations

Central tendency

Representation of a typical score in a distribution

What are the three measures used to indicate central tendency of distribution?

Mean (average), Median (middle), and Mode (most common)

Variability

The spread of scores in a distribution

What are the measures of variability?

Range (difference between highest and lowest), Standard deviation (difference between scores and mean), and Variance (standard deviation squared)

Null hypothesis

The hypothesis that an effect or relationship does not exist, or exists in the opposite direction of the alternative hypothesis, in the population.

Example of null hypothesis

The COVID-19 vaccine will have no effect

Alternative (scientific) hypothesis

The hypothesis that an effect or relationship exists (or exists in a specific direction) in the population

Example of alternative hypothesis

The COVID-19 vaccine will prevent COVID-19 infections

Alpha level

The probability level used by researchers to indicate the cut-off probability level (highest value) that allows them to reject the null hypothesis

Type 1 error

Error made in a significance test when the researcher rejects the null hypothesis when it is actually true

Type 2 error

Error made in a significance test when the researcher fails to reject the null hypothesis when it is actually false

Example of type 1 error

Conclude the COVID vaccine is effective, when in reality it is not

Example of type 2 error

Conclude the COVID vaccine is NOT effective, when in reality it is