Philosophy, Theology, and Apologetics

Correspondence Theory of Truth

Truth is what matches reality. A statement is true if it accurately describes the way things actually are.

Objective Truth

Truth that is true regardless of what someone believes, feels, or thinks about it.

Subjective Truth

Truth based on a person's personal feelings, opinions, experiences, or beliefs.

Burden of Proof

The responsibility to provide evidence and reasons to support a claim. The person making the claim has the burden of proof.

Big Bang Theory

The scientific theory that the universe expanded from an extremely hot and dense early state. Some Christians see it as consistent with the belief that the universe had a beginning and was created by God.

Origin of the Big Bang Theory

The theory was developed through scientific work, especially by Georges Lemaître, a Catholic priest and physicist, who proposed an expanding universe.

Why the Big Bang Matters to Christianity

If the universe had a beginning, this can support the idea that the universe needs a cause. However, the Big Bang by itself does not prove that God exists.

Cosmological Argument

An argument for God's existence based on the existence of the universe and the idea that everything that begins to exist needs a cause.

First Cause Argument

The idea that the chain of causes cannot go back forever and must ultimately depend on a first cause, identified by the argument as God.

Thomas Aquinas

Christian philosopher and theologian who developed five arguments for God's existence known as the Five Ways.

Aquinas's First Way: Motion

The argument that things change or move because of other things, and there must ultimately be an unmoved mover, identified as God.

Aquinas's Second Way: Efficient Cause

Things have causes, and there must ultimately be a first cause that was not caused by another thing, identified as God.

Aquinas's Third Way: Possibility and Necessity

Things in the universe can exist or fail to exist, so Aquinas argues there must be a necessary being that explains why anything exists.

Aquinas's Fourth Way: Degrees of Perfection

Things have different levels of qualities such as goodness and truth, and Aquinas argues that these point toward a greatest source of perfection, identified as God.

Aquinas's Fifth Way: Design

Things in nature act toward certain goals or outcomes, which Aquinas argues points to an intelligent designer, identified as God.

C.S. Lewis's Argument for Morality

Lewis argues that a real moral law exists and that this moral law points toward a source beyond human opinion, which he identifies as God.

Mere Christianity

The book by C.S. Lewis that explains Christian beliefs, including his argument that the existence of a moral law points toward God.

Law of Nature vs. Law of Man

The law of nature refers to the moral standard people recognize as right and wrong. The law of man refers to human-made laws created by societies and governments.

Moral Law

The standard people use to judge actions as right or wrong. Lewis argues that people recognize a real moral law even when they fail to follow it.

Morality vs. Instinct

Instincts are natural urges, but morality helps people decide which urges they should follow. For example, a person may feel afraid but still choose to help someone in danger.

Lewis's Example of Conflicting Instincts

When two instincts conflict, instinct alone cannot tell us which one we should follow. We need a standard for judging between them.

Morality as Convenient vs. Inconvenient

People sometimes do what is morally right even when it costs them time, money, comfort, or safety. Lewis argues that this suggests morality is more than personal convenience.

Moral Disagreement

People may disagree about specific moral issues, but Lewis argues that many societies still recognize similar basic ideas about fairness and right and wrong.

Different Worldviews on Morality

Some people believe morality comes from God, while others explain morality through society, evolution, reason, or personal beliefs. Lewis argues that the moral law points beyond human preferences.

Why Lewis Rejects Morality as Only Social Convention

Lewis argues that people can criticize the behavior of their own society, suggesting that they recognize a moral standard beyond whatever society happens to accept.

The Life Force View

The idea that a powerful force or energy guides the universe toward improvement. Lewis argues that a force that merely pushes things forward does not explain the existence of a moral law telling us what we ought to do.

Why Lewis Thinks Morality Points to God

If a real moral law exists and is more than personal opinion or social convention, Lewis argues that it points toward a moral source beyond humanity.

Why Lewis Ends with a Cause to Be Uneasy

If the moral law points toward a real moral authority, people must consider whether they have failed to follow it. This creates a reason to feel uneasy about their own behavior.

The Problem of Evil

The question of how evil and suffering can exist if God is all-powerful, all-knowing, and perfectly good.

The Recognition of Evil

Evil is recognized through common experience and common sense. People generally understand that cruelty, injustice, and suffering are genuinely bad.

Evil and Common Sense

People do not usually treat serious suffering or injustice as merely a matter of opinion. Recognizing evil raises the question of what makes something objectively wrong.

The Definition of Evil

Evil can be understood as something that damages or goes against the way things are supposed to be according to a good design or purpose.

Evil and the Design-Plan

This approach understands evil as a failure, corruption, or damage of what is good or intended to be. Evil depends on some understanding of what things are supposed to be.

The Presupposition of Evil

Calling something evil assumes that there is a real standard of good by which it can be judged.

Evil and Human Value

Calling cruelty or injustice evil assumes that people have value and deserve to be treated with dignity. The problem of evil raises questions about the source of human worth.

The Reparation of Evil

Reparation means addressing, correcting, or making up for the damage caused by evil.

Evil and the Moral Gap

The moral gap is the difference between how things are and how they ought to be. Evil shows that reality does not always match what is morally right.

The Argumentation on Evil

The process of examining arguments about evil, suffering, and God's existence, including possible objections and responses.

Evil and Critical Responses

Critical responses examine whether evil disproves God and consider explanations such as human freedom, the limits of human understanding, and God's response to suffering.

The Redemption from Evil

Redemption means overcoming or rescuing people from evil and its effects. Christianity teaches that God acts to redeem humanity through Jesus Christ.

Evil and Divine Intervention

Divine intervention is the idea that God acts in the world to help, rescue, guide, or ultimately deliver people from evil.

The Resolution to Evil

The final overcoming of evil and suffering. Christianity teaches that God will ultimately bring justice and restore creation.

Evil and Cosmic Justice

Cosmic justice means that good and evil will ultimately be dealt with fairly, even when justice is not fully achieved in this life.

The Action Against Evil

Human beings have a responsibility to oppose evil by helping others, standing up against injustice, and doing what is right.

Evil and Human Involvement

God's existence does not mean people should ignore suffering. People can help fight evil by serving others and making morally responsible choices.

Volition Concerning Evil

Volition means the ability to choose. People must decide how they will respond to evil and whether they will stand against it or allow it to continue.

Evil and Taking a Stance

People should make a deliberate choice about how to respond to evil instead of remaining indifferent. This can include helping victims, confronting injustice, and choosing what is right.

Free Will Defense

An argument that God allows people to make real choices, and the ability to choose wrongly makes moral evil possible.

Moral Evil

Evil caused by human choices and actions, such as lying, stealing, cruelty, or injustice.

Natural Evil

Suffering caused by natural events or conditions, such as earthquakes, hurricanes, and diseases.

Why Would a Good God Allow Suffering?

Some Christian responses include human free will, the possibility of moral and spiritual growth, the limits of human understanding, and the belief that God will ultimately overcome evil.